Michelson Interferometer for Global High-Resolution Thermospheric Imaging (MIGHTI): Instrument Design and Calibration

The Michelson Interferometer for Global High-resolution Thermospheric Imaging (MIGHTI) instrument was built for launch and operation on the NASA Ionospheric Connection Explorer (ICON) mission. The instrument was designed to measure thermospheric horizontal wind velocity profiles and thermospheric temperature in altitude regions between 90 km and 300 km, during day and night. For the wind measurements it uses two perpendicular fields of view pointed at the Earth’s limb, observing the Doppler shift of the atomic oxygen red and green lines at 630.0 nm and 557.7 nm wavelength. The wavelength shift is measured using field-widened, temperature compensated Doppler Asymmetric Spatial Heterodyne (DASH) spectrometers, employing low order échelle gratings operating at two different orders for the different atmospheric lines. The temperature measurement is accomplished by a multichannel photometric measurement of the spectral shape of the molecular oxygen A-band around 762 nm wavelength. For each field of view, the signals of the two oxygen lines and the A-band are detected on different regions of a single, cooled, frame transfer charge coupled device (CCD) detector. On-board calibration sources are used to periodically quantify thermal drifts, simultaneously with observing the atmosphere. The MIGHTI requirements, the resulting instrument design and the calibration are described.     

Spatio-temporal dynamics in the phenology of croplands across the Indo-Gangetic Plains

Spatio-temporal dynamics in land surface phenology parameters observed over croplands can inform on crop-climate interactions and, elucidate local to regional scale vulnerabilities either due to climate change or prevailing sub-optimal agricultural practices. Here, we observe spatio-temporal trends in land surface phenology parameters (cropping intensity, length of growing season and productivity) for kharif and rabi cropping seasons from satellite data across the Indo-Gangetic Plains from 1982 to 2006. The productivity of the Indo-Gangetic Plains croplands is of regional importance and is a vital component of Indian national food security efforts. Aside from local and intra-state heterogeneity in observed trends there was a clear west-to-east gradient in cropping intensity. Key observed trends include increasing cropping intensity in the eastern IGP, increasing number of growing days per year in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana and increasing productivity in both cropping seasons across the IGP. This information is a crucial input to integrated assessments of the croplands to ensure management of the agricultural system shifts towards a trajectory of climate-resilience and environmental sustainability.     

Comparison of the transport codes HZETRN,HETC and FLUKA for galactic cosmic rays

The HZETRN deterministic radiation code is one of several tools developed to analyze the effects of harmful galactic cosmic rays (GCR) and solar particle events on mission planning and shielding for astronauts and instrumentation. This paper is a comparison study involving the two Monte Carlo transport codes, HETC–HEDS and FLUKA and the deterministic transport code, HZETRN. Each code is used to transport an ion from the 1977 solar minimum GCR spectrum impinging upon a 20 g/cm² aluminum slab followed by a 30 g/cm² water slab. This research is part of a systematic effort of verification and validation to quantify the accuracy of HZETRN and determine areas where it can be improved. Comparisons of dose and dose equivalent values at various depths in the water slab are presented in this report. This is followed by a comparison of the proton and forward, backward and total neutron flux at various depths in the water slab. Comparisons of the secondary light ion ²H, ³H, ³He and ⁴He fluxes are also examined.     

Survival of Deinococcus radiodurans against laboratory-simulated solar wind charged particles

In this experimental study, cells of the radiation-resistant bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans were exposed to several different sources of radiation chosen to replicate the charged particles found in the solar wind. Naked cells or cells mixed with dust grains (basalt or sandstone) differing in elemental composition were exposed to electrons, protons, and ions to determine the probability of cell survival after irradiation. Doses necessary to reduce the viability of cell population to 10% (LD(10)) were determined under different experimental conditions. The results of this study indicate that low-energy particle radiation (2-4?keV), typically present in the slow component of the solar wind, had no effect on dehydrated cells, even if exposed at fluences only reached in more than 1000 years at Sun-Earth distance (1 AU). Higher-energy ions (200?keV) found in solar flares would inactivate 90% of exposed cells after several events in less than 1 year at 1 AU. When mixed with dust grains, LD(10) increases about 10-fold. These results show that, compared to the highly deleterious effects of UV radiation, solar wind charged particles are relatively benign, and organisms protected under grains from UV radiation would also be protected from the charged particles considered in this study.     

Interplanetary Lyman α Observations: Intensities from Voyagers and Line Profiles from HST/STIS

We present an analysis of Voyager UVS data obtained between 1993 and mid-2007. These data are used to study the interplanetary background and the hydrogen number density in the outer heliosphere. Two types of observations are studied, first the heliospheric scans performed until 2003 and then the fixed line of sight observations, close to the upwind direction, which are still performed at the end of 2007. We make comparisons with models including multiple scattering and hydrogen distributions derived from self-consistent modeling of the interface region. It is found that there is a remaining discrepancy between models and data. The origin of this difference is unknown but it may be linked to a possible tilting of the heliospheric interface due to the presence of an interstellar magnetic field. We should also estimate alternate sources of emission which are not backscattering of solar photons like collisional excitation of hydrogen in the heliosheath and emission after charge transfer or recombination of proton and electron in HII regions. Line profiles from HST/STIS are also presented.     

Towards Synthesis of Solar Wind and Geomagnetic Scaling Exponents: A Fractional Lévy Motion Model

Mandelbrot introduced the concept of fractals to describe the non-Euclidean shape of many aspects of the natural world. In the time series context, he proposed the use of fractional Brownian motion (fBm) to model non-negligible temporal persistence, the ‘Joseph Effect’; and Lévy flights to quantify large discontinuities, the ‘Noah Effect’. In space physics, both effects are manifested in the intermittency and long-range correlation which are by now well-established features of geomagnetic indices and their solar wind drivers. In order to capture and quantify the Noah and Joseph effects in one compact model, we propose the application of the ‘bridging’ fractional Lévy motion (fLm) to space physics. We perform an initial evaluation of some previous scaling results in this paradigm, and show how fLm can model the previously observed exponents. We suggest some new directions for the future.     

The socioeconomic benefits of Earth science and applications research: reducing the risks and costs of natural disasters in the USA

A wealth of satellite data has provided information on weather and climate phenomena for the past 40 years. Within this period, however, the heavy human and economic costs of natural disasters have increased considerably. Using hurricanes, droughts, floods and earthquakes which occurred in the USA as examples, this article describes how Earth science can be applied to such situations to predict or mitigate their effects. The economic value of providing such information is discussed, as are the issues that can affect how successful its provision will be.     

On Truncation Error Bounds for Sampling Representations of Band-Limited Signals

All sampling representations of band-limited signals involve infinite sums. The truncation error associated with a given representation is defined as the difference between the signal and an approximating sum utilizing a finite number of terms. In this paper truncation error is expressed as a contour integral for Lagrange interpolation, general Hermite interpolation, the Shannon series (cardinal series), the Fogel derivative series, and multidimensional sampling expansions. Truncation error bounds are obtained under various constraints on the signal magnitude, spectral smoothness, and energy content.     

Mars Science Laboratory Mission and Science Investigation

Scheduled to land in August of 2012, the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Mission was initiated to explore the habitability of Mars. This includes both modern environments as well as ancient environments recorded by the stratigraphic rock record preserved at the Gale crater landing site. The Curiosity rover has a designed lifetime of at least one Mars year (～23?months), and drive capability of at least 20?km. Curiosity’s science payload was specifically assembled to assess habitability and includes a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer and gas analyzer that will search for organic carbon in rocks, regolith fines, and the atmosphere (SAM instrument); an x-ray diffractometer that will determine mineralogical diversity (CheMin instrument); focusable cameras that can image landscapes and rock/regolith textures in natural color (MAHLI, MARDI, and Mastcam instruments); an alpha-particle x-ray spectrometer for in situ determination of rock and soil chemistry (APXS instrument); a?laser-induced breakdown spectrometer to remotely sense the chemical composition of rocks and minerals (ChemCam instrument); an active neutron spectrometer designed to search for water in rocks/regolith (DAN instrument); a weather station to measure modern-day environmental variables (REMS instrument); and a sensor designed for continuous monitoring of background solar and cosmic radiation (RAD instrument). The various payload elements will work together to detect and study potential sampling targets with remote and in situ measurements; to acquire samples of rock, soil, and atmosphere and analyze them in onboard analytical instruments; and to observe the environment around the rover. The 155-km diameter Gale crater was chosen as Curiosity’s field site based on several attributes: an interior mountain of ancient flat-lying strata extending almost 5?km above the elevation of the landing site; the lower few hundred meters of the mountain show a progression with relative age from clay-bearing to sulfate-bearing strata, separated by an unconformity from overlying likely anhydrous strata; the landing ellipse is characterized by a mixture of alluvial fan and high thermal inertia/high albedo stratified deposits; and a number of stratigraphically/geomorphically distinct fluvial features. Samples of the crater wall and rim rock, and more recent to currently active surface materials also may be studied. Gale has a well-defined regional context and strong evidence for a progression through multiple potentially habitable environments. These environments are represented by a stratigraphic record of extraordinary extent, and insure preservation of a rich record of the environmental history of early Mars. The interior mountain of Gale Crater has been informally designated at Mount Sharp, in honor of the pioneering planetary scientist Robert Sharp. The major subsystems of the MSL Project consist of a single rover (with science payload), a Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator, an Earth-Mars cruise stage, an entry, descent, and landing system, a launch vehicle, and the mission operations and ground data systems. The primary communication path for downlink is relay through the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. The primary path for uplink to the rover is Direct-from-Earth. The secondary paths for downlink are Direct-to-Earth and relay through the Mars Odyssey orbiter. Curiosity is a scaled version of the 6-wheel drive, 4-wheel steering, rocker bogie system from the Mars Exploration Rovers (MER) Spirit and Opportunity and the Mars Pathfinder Sojourner. Like Spirit and Opportunity, Curiosity offers three primary modes of navigation: blind-drive, visual odometry, and visual odometry with hazard avoidance. Creation of terrain maps based on HiRISE (High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment) and other remote sensing data were used to conduct simulated driving with Curiosity in these various modes, and allowed selection of the Gale crater landing site which requires climbing the base of a mountain to achieve its primary science goals. The Sample Acquisition, Processing, and Handling (SA/SPaH) subsystem is responsible for the acquisition of rock and soil samples from the Martian surface and the processing of these samples into fine particles that are then distributed to the analytical science instruments. The SA/SPaH subsystem is also responsible for the placement of the two contact instruments (APXS, MAHLI) on rock and soil targets. SA/SPaH consists of a robotic arm and turret-mounted devices on the end of the arm, which include a drill, brush, soil scoop, sample processing device, and the mechanical and electrical interfaces to the two contact science instruments. SA/SPaH also includes drill bit boxes, the organic check material, and an observation tray, which are all mounted on the front of the rover, and inlet cover mechanisms that are placed over the SAM and CheMin solid sample inlet tubes on the rover top deck.     

Third world radiation threats to satellites

The era of hardening military satellites against nuclear events, lasers, and high-power microwaves, appears to have come to an end. A case is made here for maintaining rudimentary nuclear, laser, and high-power microwave (HPM) hardening requirements in order to protect against developing third world threats. The third world nuclear threat is well known. Less appreciated is the fact that third world laser and microwave threats have changed radically in the past few years