Spectral signatures of photosynthesis. II. Coevolution with other stars and the atmosphere on extrasolar worlds

As photosynthesis on Earth produces the primary signatures of life that can be detected astronomically at the global scale, a strong focus of the search for extrasolar life will be photosynthesis, particularly photosynthesis that has evolved with a different parent star. We take previously simulated planetary atmospheric compositions for Earth-like planets around observed F2V and K2V, modeled M1V and M5V stars, and around the active M4.5V star AD Leo; our scenarios use Earth's atmospheric composition as well as very low O2 content in case anoxygenic photosynthesis dominates. With a line-by-line radiative transfer model, we calculate the incident spectral photon flux densities at the surface of the planet and under water. We identify bands of available photosynthetically relevant radiation and find that photosynthetic pigments on planets around F2V stars may peak in absorbance in the blue, K2V in the red-orange, and M stars in the near-infrared, in bands at 0.93-1.1 microm, 1.1-1.4 microm, 1.5-1.8 microm, and 1.8-2.5 microm. However, underwater organisms will be restricted to wavelengths shorter than 1.4 microm and more likely below 1.1 microm. M star planets without oxygenic photosynthesis will have photon fluxes above 1.6 microm curtailed by methane. Longer-wavelength, multi-photo-system series would reduce the quantum yield but could allow for oxygenic photosystems at longer wavelengths. A wavelength of 1.1 microm is a possible upper cutoff for electronic transitions versus only vibrational energy; however, this cutoff is not strict, since such energetics depend on molecular configuration. M star planets could be a half to a tenth as productive as Earth in the visible, but exceed Earth if useful photons extend to 1.1 microm for anoxygenic photosynthesis. Under water, organisms would still be able to survive ultraviolet flares from young M stars and acquire adequate light for growth.     

Adenine synthesis in interstellar space: mechanisms of prebiotic pyrimidine-ring formation of monocyclic HCN-pentamers

The question whether the nucleobases can be synthesized in interstellar space is of fundamental significance in considerations of the origin of life. Adenine is formally the HCN pentamer, and experiments have demonstrated that adenine is formed under certain conditions by HCN pentamerization in gas, liquid, and condensed phases. Most mechanistic proposals invoke the intermediacy of the HCN tetramer AICN (4), and it is thought that adenine synthesis is completed by addition of the 5(th) HCN to 4 to form amidine 5 and subsequent pyrimidine cyclization. In this context, we have been studying the mechanism for prebiotic pyrimidine-ring formation of monocyclic HCN-pentamers with ab initio electronic structure theory. The calculations model gas phase chemistry, and the results primarily inform discussions of adenine synthesis in interstellar space. Purine formation requires tautomerization of 5 to the conjugated amidine 6 (via hydrogen-tunneling, thermally with H(+) -catalysis, or by photolysis) or to keteneimine 7 (by photolysis). It was found that 5-(N'-formamidinyl)-1H-imidazole-4-carbonitrile (6) can serve as a substrate for proton-catalyzed purine formation under photolytic conditions and N-(4-(iminomethylene)-1H-imidazol-5(4H)-ylidene)formamidine (7) can serve as a substrate for uncatalyzed purine formation under photolytic conditions. The absence of any sizeable activation barrier for the cyclization of 7 to the (Z)-imino form of 9H-adenine (Z)-2 is quite remarkable, and it is this feature that allows for the formation of the purine skeleton from 7 without any further activation.     

Drilling systems for extraterrestrial subsurface exploration

Drilling consists of 2 processes: breaking the formation with a bit and removing the drilled cuttings. In rotary drilling, rotational speed and weight on bit are used to control drilling, and the optimization of these parameters can markedly improve drilling performance. Although fluids are used for cuttings removal in terrestrial drilling, most planetary drilling systems conduct dry drilling with an auger. Chip removal via water-ice sublimation (when excavating water-ice-bound formations at pressure below the triple point of water) and pneumatic systems are also possible. Pneumatic systems use the gas or vaporization products of a high-density liquid brought from Earth, gas provided by an in situ compressor, or combustion products of a monopropellant. Drill bits can be divided into coring bits, which excavate an annular shaped hole, and full-faced bits. While cylindrical cores are generally superior as scientific samples, and coring drills have better performance characteristics, full-faced bits are simpler systems because the handling of a core requires a very complex robotic mechanism. The greatest constraints to extraterrestrial drilling are (1) the extreme environmental conditions, such as temperature, dust, and pressure; (2) the light-time communications delay, which necessitates highly autonomous systems; and (3) the mission and science constraints, such as mass and power budgets and the types of drilled samples needed for scientific analysis. A classification scheme based on drilling depth is proposed. Each of the 4 depth categories (surface drills, 1-meter class drills, 10-meter class drills, and deep drills) has distinct technological profiles and scientific ramifications.     

采用实时延迟线的光控微波相控阵天线的首次验证

本文详细介绍了首部由光延迟线控制的微波相控阵天线的设计与性能。验证了当频率从L波段转换到X波段时，采用半导体激光开关实现时延，天线方向图不会发生“波束偏移”。     

开发TDRSS对政府和商业运载火箭的全球覆盖能力

NASA天基通信网—TDRSS可为哈勃太空望远镜、Compton天文台、TOPEX以及航天飞机等多种低轨道飞行航天器提供跟踪和通信服务。当前NASA正集中研究采用最经济的办法完成其各项航天任务,这就促使它加倍努力,寻求从其TDRSS独特资源获得更大价值的一切可能性。现已证明利用3颗地球同步卫星加上高增益S波段跟踪天线能为一次性运载火箭(ELV)的发射阶段提供近全球覆盖能力。 运载火箭在上升和级间分离期间,由TDRSS提供遥测覆盖要比利用高级靶场测量飞机(ARIA)或多个航区站费用低得多。 TDRSS可望承担各类运载火箭的发射服务,其中包括德尔它、大力神/顶上级、飞马座、民兵、改进型火箭(EELV)和海射火箭以及国外运载火箭。对于装有相应转发器的顶上级,可以覆盖到转移轨道段。还在研究利用TDRSS波段前向链路传递靶场安全指令,从而还可能得到明显的经济效益。 本文详细介绍TDRSS为大力神/半人马座和阿特拉斯/半人马座发射提供通信保障所获得的经验,并叙述为各种运载火箭发射服务的余量、发射机和天线特性以及费用和前景。     

为使操作费用最佳化的地面部分重用

航天任务的操作费用占整个任务费用的１０￣１５％,为了使正常操作的费用最低,并尽量延长实用卫星的寿命,从而增加总任务投资的回报,探讨地面部分设计方案最佳化方法越来越重要。本文介绍了欧空局在一系列任务地面部分开发和操作方面的经验,以证明可在直接重用,采用通用部件和任务专门开发之间正确折衷,实现最小风险开发并使操作费用最佳化。     

埃里克森公司计划改进JAS39的航空电子设备

在第11架JAS39“鹰狮”战斗机正在交付的时候,埃里克森公司已计划好第一轮的修改与更新,这些修改可能是针对第二批生产的新飞机提出的.在这些改进中,该公司正在考虑采用彩色显示器、头盔瞄准具、射频(RF)干扰机和固态数字式视频记录器.担负JAS39主要制造工作的有萨伯、伏尔伏、FF及位于肯斯塔和蒙德尔两地的埃里克森等公司.在首批30架正在生产的     

Locating potential biosignatures on Europa from surface geology observations

We evaluated the astrobiological potential of the major classes of geologic units on Europa with respect to possible biosignatures preservation on the basis of surface geology observations. These observations are independent of any formational model and therefore provide an objective, though preliminary, evaluation. The assessment criteria include high mobility of material, surface concentration of non-ice components, relative youth, textural roughness, and environmental stability. Our review determined that, as feature classes, low-albedo smooth plains, smooth bands, and chaos hold the highest potential, primarily because of their relative young age, the emplacement of low-viscosity material, and indications of material exchange with the subsurface. Some lineaments and impact craters may be promising sites for closer study despite the comparatively lower astrobiological potential of their classes. This assessment will be expanded by multidisciplinary examination of the potential for habitability of specific features.     

The NASA Astrobiology Roadmap

The NASA Astrobiology Roadmap provides guidance for research and technology development across the NASA enterprises that encompass the space, Earth, and biological sciences. The ongoing development of astrobiology roadmaps embodies the contributions of diverse scientists and technologists from government, universities, and private institutions. The Roadmap addresses three basic questions: How does life begin and evolve, does life exist elsewhere in the universe, and what is the future of life on Earth and beyond? Seven Science Goals outline the following key domains of investigation: understanding the nature and distribution of habitable environments in the universe, exploring for habitable environments and life in our own solar system, understanding the emergence of life, determining how early life on Earth interacted and evolved with its changing environment, understanding the evolutionary mechanisms and environmental limits of life, determining the principles that will shape life in the future, and recognizing signatures of life on other worlds and on early Earth. For each of these goals, Science Objectives outline more specific high-priority efforts for the next 3-5 years. These 18 objectives are being integrated with NASA strategic planning.     

Impacts and evolution: future prospects

The discipline of astrobiology includes the dynamics of biological evolution. One of the major ways that the cosmos influences life is through the catastrophic environmental disruptions caused when comets and asteroids collide with a planet. We now recognize that such impacts have caused mass extinctions and played a major role in determining the evolution of life on Earth. The time-averaged impact flux as a function of projectile energy can be derived from lunar cratering statistics as well as the current population of near Earth asteroids (NEAs). Effects of impacts of various energies can be modeled, using data from historic impacts [such as the Cretaceous-Tertiary (KT) impactor 65 million years ago] and the observed 1994 bombardment of Jupiter by fragments of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9. It is of particular interest to find from such models that the terrestrial environment is highly vulnerable to perturbation from impacts, so that even such a small event as the KT impact (by a projectile 10-15 km in diameter) can lead to a mass extinction. Similar considerations allow us to model the effects of still smaller (and much more likely) impacts, down to the size of the asteroid that exploded over Tunguska in 1908 (energy approximately 10 megatons). Combining the impact flux with estimates of environmental and ecological effects reveals that the greatest contemporary hazard is associated with impactors near 1 million megatons in energy (approximately 2 km in diameter for an asteroid). The current impact hazard is significant relative to other natural hazards, and arguments can be developed to illuminate a variety of public policy issues. The first priority in any plan for defense against impactors is to survey the population of Earth-crossing NEAs and project their orbits forward in time. This is the purpose of the Spaceguard Survey, which has already found more than half of the NEAs >1 km in diameter. If there is an NEA on a collision course with Earth, it can be discovered and the impact predicted with decades or more of warning. It is then possible to consider how to deflect or disrupt the NEA. Unlike other natural hazards, the impact risk can be largely eliminated, given sufficient advanced knowledge to take action against the threatening projectile.