Why space exploration should be a global project

Apollo should not serve as a model for the many programs for lunar and planetary exploration currently making headway: it was a unilateral effort whose generous budget would be inconceivable today. Yet President Kennedy was an advocate of cooperation in major space missions, an attitude that makes perfect sense today, when so many agencies have ambitious exploration plans. The importance of President G.W. Bush's ‘Vision for Space Exploration’, by providing a focus for NASA and others, has been underestimated. It should give us a chance to find out whether a long-term objective of moving humans off the home planet is really feasible—surely the point of exploration.     

基于电磁流体动力搅拌器的微流道混合研究

对于许多微流体装置来说,流体的混合是至关重要的.为了实现微流体混合控制,对基于电磁流体动力学原理的微流道主动混合控制方法进行了研究.该方法中使用了一个混合室,在动态洛伦兹力的作用下,混合室内流体往复周期的运动.流体速度的周期性变化使流体分界面折叠,从而使流体接触面增加.用CCD记录设备记录了流体的快速混合过程,并对流体的混合程度进行定量分析.     

Astrobiological considerations for the selection of the geological filters on the ExoMars PanCam instrument

The Panoramic Camera (PanCam) instrument will provide visible-near IR multispectral imaging of the ExoMars rover's surroundings to identify regions of interest within the nearby terrain. This multispectral capability is dependant upon the 12 preselected "geological" filters that are integrated into two wide-angle cameras. First devised by the Imager for Mars Pathfinder team to detect iron oxides, this baseline filter set has remained largely unchanged for subsequent missions (Mars Exploration Rovers, Beagle 2, Phoenix) despite the advancing knowledge of the mineralogical diversity on Mars. Therefore, the geological filters for the ExoMars PanCam will be redesigned to accommodate the astrobiology focus of ExoMars, where hydrated mineral terrains (evidence of past liquid water) will be priority targets. Here, we conduct an initial investigation into new filter wavelengths for the ExoMars PanCam and present results from tests performed on Mars analog rocks. Two new filter sets were devised: one with filters spaced every 50?nm ("F1-12") and another that utilizes a novel filter selection method based upon hydrated mineral reflectance spectra ("F2-12"). These new filter sets, along with the Beagle 2 filter set (currently the baseline for the ExoMars PanCam), were tested on their ability to identify hydrated minerals and biosignatures present in Mars analog rocks. The filter sets, with varying degrees of ability, detected the spectral features of minerals jarosite, opaline silica, alunite, nontronite, and siderite present in these rock samples. None of the filter sets, however, were able to detect fossilized biomat structures and small (<2?mm) mineralogical heterogeneities present in silica sinters. Both new filter sets outperformed the Beagle 2 filters, with F2-12 detecting the most spectral features produced by hydrated minerals and providing the best discrimination between samples. Future work involving more extensive testing on Mars analog samples that exhibit a wider range of mineralogies would be the next step in carefully evaluating the new filter sets.     

Implications of subzero metabolic activity on long-term microbial survival in terrestrial and extraterrestrial permafrost

The survival of microorganisms over extended time frames in frozen subsurface environments may be limited by chemical (i.e., via hydrolysis and oxidation) and ionizing radiation-induced damage to chromosomal DNA. In an effort to improve estimates for the survival of bacteria in icy terrestrial and extraterrestrial environments, we determined rates of macromolecular synthesis at temperatures down to -15°C in bacteria isolated from Siberian permafrost (Psychrobacter cryohalolentis K5 and P. arcticus 273-4) and the sensitivity of P. cryohalolentis to ionizing radiation. Based on experiments conducted over ≈400 days at -15°C, the rates of protein and DNA synthesis in P. cryohalolentis were <1 to 16 proteins cell(-1) d(-1) and 83 to 150 base pairs (bp) cell(-1) d(-1), respectively; P. arcticus synthesized DNA at rates of 20 to 1625?bp cell(-1) d(-1) at -15°C under the conditions tested. The dose of ionizing radiation at which 37% of the cells survive (D(37)) of frozen suspensions of P. cryohalolentis was 136?Gy, which was ～2-fold higher (71?Gy) than identical samples exposed as liquid suspensions. Laboratory measurements of [(3)H]thymidine incorporation demonstrate the physiological potential for DNA metabolism at -15°C and suggest a sufficient activity is possible to offset chromosomal damage incurred in near-subsurface terrestrial and martian permafrost. Thus, our data imply that the longevity of microorganisms actively metabolizing within permafrost environments is not constrained by chromosomal DNA damage resulting from ionizing radiation or entropic degradation over geological time.     

Clathrate hydrates of oxidants in the ice shell of Europa

Europa's icy surface is radiolytically modified by high-energy electrons and ions, and photolytically modified by solar ultraviolet photons. Observations from the Galileo Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer, ground-based telescopes, the International Ultraviolet Explorer, and the Hubble Space Telescope, along with laboratory experiment results, indicate that the production of oxidants, such as H2O2, O2, CO2, and SO2, is a consequence of the surface radiolytic chemistry. Once created, some of the products may be entrained deeper into the ice shell through impact gardening or other resurfacing processes. The temperature and pressure environments of regions within the europan hydrosphere are expected to permit the formation of mixed clathrate compounds. The formation of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide clathrates has been examined in some detail. Here we add to this analysis by considering oxidants produced radiolytically on the surface of Europa. Our results indicate that the bulk ice shell could have a approximately 1.7-7.6% by number contamination of oxidants resulting from radiolysis at the surface. Oxidant-hosting clathrates would consequently make up approximately 12-53% of the ice shell by number relative to ice, if oxidants were entrained throughout. We examine, in brief, the consequences of such contamination on bulk ice shell thickness and find that clathrate formation could lead to substantially thinner ice shells on Europa than otherwise expected. Finally, we propose that double occupancy of clathrate cages by O2 molecules could serve as an explanation for the observation of condensed-phase O2 on Europa. Clathrate-sealed, gas-filled bubbles in the near surface ice could also provide an effective trapping mechanism, though they cannot explain the 5771 A (O2)2 absorption.     

Refuse-to-crash: NASA tackles loss of control

The article reviews technologies under study at NASA that will alert pilots of loss of control in time to take action or be able to take necessary action to avoid crashing. Topics discussed include efforts to understand factors behind loss of control, how flight simulator data has been reviewed to develop a new understanding of aircraft aerodynamics, use of models to simulate accidents, and design changes resulting from the data collected.     

The magnetosheath and magnetotail of Venus

We describe the observational history and assess the current understanding of the magnetosheath and magnetotail of Venus, stressing recent developments. We make recommendations for research that can be done using existing observations, as well as desirable trajectory and instrumentation characteristics for future spacecraft missions.     

Magnetosphere dynamics with artificial plasma clouds

Addition of cold plasma to the magnetosphere outside the plasmasphere can enhance both ion and electron electromagnetic cyclotron (EMC) instabilities. To turn on the ion EMC mode, one needs a cold plasma ion which is not too heavy; in many respects, lithium is ideal. Calculations have been made of total ion-EMC amplification on a single pass through a lithium cloud; these show that as much as 40–80 dB gain can be achieved on a synchronous-orbit field line. The most important effects of adding lithium are to reduce the minimum anisotropy requirement considerably, and to broaden the unstable domain in k-space. The dynamics of the cold lithium cloud have been studied in detail; on a time scale of a few hours, the cloud behaves as an incompressible fluid in the presence of electric convection fields, and should not become so seriously distorted that the total amplification given above is substantially degraded. Some remarks are made about the effects of added cold plasma on the Post-Rosenbluth electrostatic mode; for the most part, growth rates are reduced with addition of cold plasma.