What should nations reveal about their spying from space? An examination of the US experience

Revelation of the details of countries' space-based reconnaissance programs was unusual until the end of the Cold War, despite debates on the subject within the US government. Since then – and in contrast to Russia – the USA has been more open about its spying activities. This article charts the history of declassification in the USA from the Eisenhower Administration to that of G.W. Bush. It discusses issues such as the need to ensure freedom of space for the operation of spy satellites, gaining public acceptance of space-based reconnaissance by demonstrating the civil uses of such photography, and tradeoffs between revealing one's capabilities and letting others know how closely their actions can be observed.     

Bacterial community in ancient Siberian permafrost as characterized by culture and culture-independent methods

The microbial composition of ancient permafrost sediments from the Kolyma lowland of Northeast Eurasia was examined through culture and culture-independent approaches. These sediments have been continuously frozen for 5,000 to 2-3 million years. A total of 265 Bacteria 16S rRNA gene sequences were amplified from the permafrost total-community genomic DNA and screened by amplified ribosomal 16S rRNA restriction analysis. Members of three major lineages were found: gamma-Proteobacteria (mostly Xanthomonadaceae), Actinobacteria, and Firmicutes. We also determined partial 16S rRNA gene sequences of 49 isolates from a collection of 462 aerobes isolated from these sediments. The bacteria included Actinomycetales (Arthrobacter and Microbacteriaceae); followed by the Firmicutes (Exiguobacterium and Planomicrobium); the Bacteroidetes (Flavobacterium); the gamma-Proteobacteria (Psychrobacter); and the alpha-Proteobacteria (Sphingomonas). Both culture and culture-independent approaches showed the presence of high and low G+C Gram-positive bacteria and gamma-Proteobacteria. Some of the 16S rRNA gene sequences of environmental clones matched those of Arthrobacter isolates. Two-thirds of the isolates grew at -2.5 degrees C, indicating that they are psychroactive, and all are closely related to phylogenetic groups with strains from other cold environments, mostly commonly from Antarctica. The culturable and non-culturable microorganisms found in the terrestrial permafrost provide a prototype for possible life on the cryogenic planets of the Solar System.     

Entrapment of bacteria in fluid inclusions in laboratory-grown halite

Cells of the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which were genetically modified to produce green fluorescent protein, were entrapped in fluid inclusions in laboratory-grown halite. The bacteria were used to inoculate NaCl-saturated aqueous solutions, which were allowed to evaporate and precipitate halite. The number, size, and distribution of fluid inclusions were highly variable, but did not appear to be affected by the presence of the bacteria. Many of the inclusions in crystals from inoculated solutions contained cells in populations ranging from two to 20. Microbial attachment to crystal surfaces was neither evident nor necessary for entrapment. Cells occurred exclusively within fluid inclusions and were not present in the crystal matrix. In both the inclusions and the hypersaline solution, the cells fluoresced and twitched, which indicates that the bacteria might have remained viable after entrapment. The fluorescence continued up to 13 months after entrapment, which indicates that little degradation of the bacteria occurred over that time interval. The entrapment, fluorescence, and preservation of cells were independent of the volume of hypersaline solution used or whether the solutions were completely evaporated prior to crystal extraction. The results of this study have a wide range of implications for the long-term survival of microorganisms in fluid inclusions and their detection through petrography. The results also demonstrate the preservation potential for microbes in hypersaline fluid inclusions, which could allow cells to survive harsh conditions of space, the deep geologic past, or burial in sedimentary basins.     

Spectroscopic diagnostics for CDS and SUMER

The CDS and SUMER instruments will make extensive use of spectroscopic diagnostics to determine the physical parameters of the solar transition region and corona. A great deal of effort is going into the development of these techniques to ensure that they are accurate. This requires interfacing solar analysis programs with the best available atomic data calculations. Recent developments in this work will be presented, with specific examples of useful spectral line ratios.     

EXOSAT observations of NGC 1399 and NGC 1404: Two elliptical galaxies in the center of the Fornax cluster

Imaging X-ray observations of the Fornax cluster of galaxies centered on NGC 1399 and NGC 1404 are presented. NGC 1399 and NGC 1404, which are separated by about 10 arc minutes, are found to have an unusually high ratio of x-ray to optical flux. We consider the possibility that the x-radiation is produced by hot gas in the cores of the galaxies. Weak X-ray emission is also detected from a point almost exactly mid-way between NGC 1399 and NGC 1404. The combined emission from the galaxies is insufficient by over an order of magnitude to account for the the low-energy X-ray emission detected from this region by the HEAO-l satellite. It is suggested that the bulk of the HEAO-1 source is diffuse gas associated with the cluster as a whole, rather than individual galaxies.     

Evolution of executive branch space policy making

This paper assesses the impacts that changes in the US presidency have had on the civilian space program during the post-Apollo period. It suggests that the White House has lost influence over space issues relative to other interested sectors. The primary factors causing this are a long-term shift to lower priority for these issues, and an inevitable widening of the scope of influence over this sector of activity. Key post-Apollo decisions are discussed for their substantive content and also for what they reveal about the extent to which the president chose to be involved. These findings have implications across all science and technology issue areas as the USA, in the aftermath of the Cold War, reexamines its post-World War II social contract with science.     

Electronics brain design for advanced microspacecraft

A brief history of NASA robotic spacecraft computing architectures is given. Changing needs driving changes in features (10x reduction in cost, various increases in capability, 10x to 100x reduction in power, mass and volume) for spacecraft computing are discussed. An architecture which addresses these changes is proposed. Finally, future directions of exploration for this spacecraft computing architecture are considered.     

The real aerospace plane

In this article reproduced from Aerospace, Spring 1986, James Haggerty reports on the US National Aerospace Plane (NASP) research programme. NASP is a joint Department of Defense/NASA programme to develop and demonstrate the technologies for a revolutionary class of aerospace vehicles, powered by airbreathing engines, that would have the capability to take off from and land horizontally on standard runways, cruise in the atmosphere at hypersonic speeds, or fly into low-Earth orbit. The Air Force has been named executive agency for the programme. NASA is charged with overall technology direction. Other DoD participants include DARPA, the Navy and the Strategic Defense Initiative Organization.

In April 1986, the USAF awarded development contracts to seven aerospace manufacturing firms. Contracts for air-frame design went to Boeing Aerospace Company, Lockheed Advanced Aeronautics Company, General Dynamics Corporation, McDonnell Douglas Corporation and Rockwell International Corporation. General Electric Company and Pratt & Whitney Division of United Technologies were awarded propulsion contracts.     

Extremophiles may be irrelevant to the origin of life

In recent years, Bacteria and Archaea have been discovered living in practically every conceivable terrestrial environment, including some previously thought to be too extreme for survival. Exploration of our solar system has revealed a number of extraterrestrial bodies that harbor environments analogous to many of the terrestrial environments in which extremophiles flourish. The recent discovery of more than 105 extrasolar planets suggests that planetary systems are quite common. These three findings have led some to speculate that life is therefore common in the universe, as life as we know it can seemingly survive almost anywhere there is liquid water. It is suggested here that while environments capable of supporting life may be common, this does not in itself support the notion that life is common in the universe. Given that interplanetary transfer of life may be unlikely, the actual origin of life may require specific environmental and geological conditions that may be much less common than the mere existence of liquid water.