An Introduction to CMEs and Energetic Particles

Energetic particle observations in the interplanetary medium provide fundamental information about the origin, development and structure of coronal mass ejections. This paper reviews the status of our understanding of the ways in which particles are energised at the Sun in association with CMEs. This understanding will remain incomplete until the relationship between CMEs and flares is determined and we know the topology of the associated magnetic fields. The paper also discusses the characteristics of interplanetary CMEs that may be probed using particle observations.     

Coronal Observations of CMEs

CMEs have been observed for over 30 years with a wide variety of instruments. It is now possible to derive detailed and quantitative information on CME morphology, velocity, acceleration and mass. Flares associated with CMEs are observed in X-rays, and several different radio signatures are also seen. Optical and UV spectra of CMEs both on the disk and at the limb provide velocities along the line of sight and diagnostics for temperature, density and composition. From the vast quantity of data we attempt to synthesize the current state of knowledge of the properties of CMEs, along with some specific observed characteristics that illuminate the physical processes occurring during CME eruption. These include the common three-part structures of CMEs, which is generally attributed to compressed material at the leading edge, a low-density magnetic bubble and dense prominence gas. Signatures of shock waves are seen, but the location of these shocks relative to the other structures and the occurrence rate at the heights where Solar Energetic Particles are produced remains controversial. The relationships among CMEs, Moreton waves, EIT waves, and EUV dimming are also cloudy. The close connection between CMEs and flares suggests that magnetic reconnection plays an important role in CME eruption and evolution. We discuss the evidence for reconnection in current sheets from white-light, X-ray, radio and UV observations. Finally, we summarize the requirements for future instrumentation that might answer the outstanding questions and the opportunities that new space-based and ground-based observatories will provide in the future.     

The Hydrogen Exospheric Density Profile Measured with ASPERA-3/NPD

We have evaluated the Lyman-α limb emission from the exospheric hydrogen of Mars measured by the neutral particle detector of the ASPERA-3 instrument on Mars Express in 2004 at low solar activity (solar activity index = 42, F_10.7=100). We derive estimates for the hydrogen exobase density, n _H = 10¹⁰ m^?3, and for the apparent temperature, T > 600 K. We conclude that the limb emission measurement is dominated by a hydrogen component that is considerably hotter than the bulk temperature at the exobase. The derived values for the exosphere density and temperature are compared with similar measurements done by the Mariner space probes in the 1969. The values found with Mars Express and Mariner data are brought in a broader context of exosphere models including the possibility of having two hydrogen components in the Martian exosphere. The present observation of the Martian hydrogen exosphere is the first one at high altitudes during low solar activity, and shows that for low solar activity exospheric densities are not higher than for high solar activity.     

How Operational Oceanography Can Benefit from Dynamic Topography Estimates as Derived from Altimetry and Improved Geoid

With a precise geoid, GOCE will allow an estimation of absolute dynamic topography from altimetry. The projected benefits to operational oceanography and its applications are analyzed herein. After a brief overview of operational oceanography, we explain how the new geoids will be used in the future to improve real time altimeter products and to better constrain modelling and data assimilation systems. A significant impact is expected both for mesoscale (e.g. better estimations and forecasts of currents for pollution monitoring, marine safety, offshore industry) and climate (better initialization of coupled ocean/atmosphere models) applications. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Type II Solar Radio Bursts: Theory and Space Weather Implications

Recent data and theory for type II solar radio bursts are reviewed, focusing on a recent analytic quantitative theory for interplanetary type II bursts. The theory addresses electron reflection and acceleration at the type II shock, formation of electron beams in the foreshock, and generation of Langmuir waves and the type II radiation there. The theory's predictions as functions of the shock and plasma parameters are summarized and discussed in terms of space weather events. The theory is consistent with available data, has explanations for radio-loud/quiet coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and why type IIs are bursty, and can account for empirical correlations between type IIs, CMEs, and interplanetary disturbances. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Summary of quantitative interpretation of IMAGE far ultraviolet auroral data

Direct imaging of the magnetosphere by instruments on the IMAGE spacecraft is supplemented by simultaneous observations of the global aurora in three far ultraviolet (FUV) wavelength bands. The purpose of the multi-wavelength imaging is to study the global auroral particle and energy input from the magnetosphere into the atmosphere. This paper describes the method for quantitative interpretation of FUV measurements. The Wide-Band Imaging Camera (WIC) provides broad band ultraviolet images of the aurora with maximum spatial resolution by imaging the nitrogen lines and bands between 140 and 180 nm wavelength. The Spectrographic Imager (SI), a dual wavelength monochromatic instrument, images both Doppler-shifted Lyman-α emissions produced by precipitating protons, in the SI-12 channel and OI 135.6 nm emissions in the SI-13 channel. From the SI-12 Doppler shifted Lyman-α images it is possible to obtain the precipitating proton flux provided assumptions are made regarding the mean energy of the protons. Knowledge of the proton (flux and energy) component allows the calculation of the contribution produced by protons in the WIC and SI-13 instruments. Comparison of the corrected WIC and SI-13 signals provides a measure of the electron mean energy, which can then be used to determine the electron energy flux. To accomplish this, reliable emission modeling and instrument calibrations are required. In-flight calibration using early-type stars was used to validate the pre-flight laboratory calibrations and determine long-term trends in sensitivity. In general, very reasonable agreement is found between in-situ measurements and remote quantitative determinations.     

Heliosphere-Geosphere Interactions Using Low Energy Neutral Atom Imaging

Development of the low energy neutral atom (LENA) imager was originally motivated by a need to remotely sense plasma heating in the topside ionosphere, with the goal of greatly enhanced temporal resolution of an otherwise familiar phenomenon. During ground test and calibration, the LENA imager was found to respond to neutral atoms with energies well above its nominal energy range of 10–750 eV, up to at least 3–4 keV, owing to sputtering interactions with its conversion surface. On orbit, LENA has been found to respond to a ubiquitous neutral atom component of the solar wind, to the neutral atoms formed by magnetosheath interactions with the geocorona during periods of high solar wind pressure, and to the interstellar neutral atoms flowing through the heliosphere during the season of maximal relative wind velocity between spacecraft and interstellar medium. LENA imaging has thus emerged as a promising new tool for studying the interplanetary medium and its interaction with the magnetosphere, in addition to the ionospheric heating and outflow that result from this interaction. LENA emissions from the ionosphere consist of a fast component that can be observed at high altitudes, and slower components that evidently create a quasi-trapped extended superthermal exosphere. The more energetic emissions are responsive to solar wind energy inputs on time scales of a few minutes.     

Far ultraviolet imaging from the IMAGE spacecraft. 2. Wideband FUV imaging

The Far Ultraviolet Wideband Imaging Camera (WIC) complements the magnetospheric images taken by the IMAGE satellite instruments with simultaneous global maps of the terrestrial aurora. Thus, a primary requirement of WIC is to image the total intensity of the aurora in wavelength regions most representative of the auroral source and least contaminated by dayglow, have sufficient field of view to cover the entire polar region from spacecraft apogee and have resolution that is sufficient to resolve auroras on a scale of 1 to 2 latitude degrees. The instrument is sensitive in the spectral region from 140–190 nm. The WIC is mounted on the rotating IMAGE spacecraft viewing radially outward and has a field of view of 17° in the direction parallel to the spacecraft spin axis. Its field of view is 30° in the direction perpendicular to the spin axis, although only a 17°×17° image of the Earth is recorded. The optics was an all-reflective, inverted Cassegrain Burch camera using concentric optics with a small convex primary and a large concave secondary mirror. The mirrors were coated by a special multi-layer coating, which has low reflectivity in the visible and near UV region. The detector consists of a MCP-intensified CCD. The MCP is curved to accommodate the focal surface of the concentric optics. The phosphor of the image intensifier is deposited on a concave fiberoptic window, which is then coupled to the CCD with a fiberoptic taper. The camera head operates in a fast frame transfer mode with the CCD being read approximately 30 full frames (512×256 pixel) per second with an exposure time of 0.033 s. The image motion due to the satellite spin is minimal during such a short exposure. Each image is electronically distortion corrected using the look up table scheme. An offset is added to each memory address that is proportional to the image shift due to satellite rotation, and the charge signal is digitally summed in memory. On orbit, approximately 300 frames will be added to produce one WIC image in memory. The advantage of the electronic motion compensation and distortion correction is that it is extremely flexible, permitting several kinds of corrections including motions parallel and perpendicular to the predicted axis of rotation. The instrument was calibrated by applying ultraviolet light through a vacuum monochromator and measuring the absolute responsivity of the instrument. To obtain the data for the distortion look up table, the camera was turned through various angles and the input angles corresponding to a pixel matrix were recorded. It was found that the spectral response peaked at 150 nm and fell off in either direction. The equivalent aperture of the camera, including mirror reflectivities and effective photocathode quantum efficiency, is about 0.04 cm². Thus, a 100 Rayleigh aurora is expected to produce 23 equivalent counts per pixel per 10 s exposure at the peak of instrument response.     

Far ultraviolet imaging from the IMAGE spacecraft. 3. Spectral imaging of Lyman-α and OI 135.6 nm

Two FUV Spectral imaging instruments, the Spectrographic Imager (SI) and the Geocorona Photometer (GEO) provide IMAGE with simultaneous global maps of the hydrogen (121.8 nm) and oxygen 135.6 nm components of the terrestrial aurora and with observations of the three dimensional distribution of neutral hydrogen in the magnetosphere (121.6 nm). The SI is a novel instrument type, in which spectral separation and imaging functions are independent of each other. In this instrument, two-dimensional images are produced on two detectors, and the images are spectrally filtered by a spectrograph part of the instrument. One of the two detectors images the Doppler-shifted Lyman- while rejecting the geocoronal `cold Ly-, and another detector images the OI 135.6 nm emission. The spectrograph is an all-reflective Wadsworth configuration in which a grill arrangement is used to block most of the cold, un-Doppler-shifted geocoronal emission at 121.567 nm. The SI calibration established that the upper limit of transmission at cold geocoronal Ly- is less than 2%. The measured light collecting efficiency was 0.01 and 0.008 cm² at 121.8 and at 135.6 nm, respectively. This is consistent with the size of the input aperture, the optical transmission, and the photocathode efficiency. The expected sensitivity is 1.8×10^–2 and 1.3×10^–2 counts per Rayleigh per pixel for each 5 s viewing exposure per satellite revolution (120 s). The measured spatial resolution is better than the 128×128 pixel matrix over the 15°×15° field of view in both wavelength channels. The SI detectors are photon counting devices using the cross delay line principle. In each detector a triple stack microchannel plate (MCP) amplifies the photo-electronic charge which is then deposited on a specially configured anode array. The position of the photon event is measured by digitizing the time delay between the pulses detected at each end of the anode structures. This scheme is intrinsically faster than systems that use charge division and it has a further advantage that it saturates more gradually at high count rates. The geocoronal Ly- is measured by a three-channel photometer system (GEO) which is a separate instrument. Each photometer has a built in MgF₂ lens to restrict the field of view to one degree and a ceramic electron multiplier with a KBr photocathode. One of the tubes is pointing radially outward perpendicular to the axis of satellite rotation. The optic of the other two subtend 60° with the rotation axis. These instruments take data continuously at 3 samples per second and rely on the combination of satellite rotation and orbital motion to scan the hydrogen cloud surrounding the earth. The detective efficiencies (effective quantum efficiency including windows) of the three tubes at Ly- are between 6 and 10%.