Exploring a structured decision approach as a means of fostering participatory space policy making at NASA

In 1996, the National Research Council's Committee on Risk Characterization argued convincingly for the implementation of more participatory approaches to improve policy making by incorporating a wide range of stakeholder values and concerns in policy decisions. Guidance about how to best carry out such an approach in an agency like NASA is less clear. To address this gap, this paper discusses how the use of a structured approach to involve expert and non-expert stakeholders in policy making can improve the quality of stakeholder involvement and resulting decisions for space policy making at NASA. Supporting this discussion are results from two recent experiments. One compared the quality and type of participants’ input in a conventional stakeholder workshop with that of a more structured participatory process. The results from this experiment showed that a structured decision approach leads to more thoughtful and better-informed decisions. A second experiment showed that structured, participatory decision processes can help to legitimize space policy decisions after they have been implemented, leading to future benefits for the space agency.     

Chemical aspects in shock ignition of fuel drops

The behavior, in an oxygen atmosphere, of shocked drops of nitromethane, 1- and 2- nitropropane, ethyl and propyl nitrate, decane, and heptane was studied. Results suggest a new mode of ignition for nitrates at high incident shock Mach numbers (M 3.7). At the high incident shock strengths ignition occurs in the boundary layer, but no blast wave develops as is the case for lower shock strengths. Since ignition delay times are very short under these conditions, the absence of blast waves is attributed to the lack of time for the accumulation of fuel in the wake. Gas phase studies of the shock decomposition of fuel molecules were undertaken to determine if gas phase data could be used to explain the trends in the drop ignition observations. Nitromethane and the nitrates were mainly used in this effort. Alternative explanations for the role of gas phase kinetics in the ignition of drops are presented.     

Space motion sickness preflight adaptation training: preliminary studies with prototype trainers

Preflight training frequently has been proposed as a potential solution to the problem of space motion sickness. The paper considers successively the otolith reinterpretation, the concept for a preflight adaptation trainer and the research with the Miami University Seesaw, the Wright Patterson Air-Force Base Dynamic Environment Simulator and the Visually Coupled Airborne Systems Simulator prototype adaptation trainers.     

Estimating the life cycle cost of the space exploration initiative

The Space Exploration Initiative (SEI) will take mankind back to the Moon and then to Mars. Preliminary estimates of SEI life cycle cost (LCC) are central to assessing programme alternatives. SEI LCC should be estimated by identifying the additional cost to accomplish the initiative over and above the cost to sustain a ‘base’ of space activities. Results of a study of four SEI alternatives provided SEI LCC cost estimates ranging from $91 billion to $308 billion (constant 1989 US dollars) from 1992 through 2020, depending upon programme philosophy. SEI LCC will be driven by the philosophy and goals of the programme, and, given the goal of ‘permanence’, essentially indeterminate because of the open-ended time horizon.     

Space motion sickness

Space motion sickness, presumably triggered by sudden entry into a weightless environment, occurred with unexpected frequency and severity among astronauts who flew the Skylab missions. Recovery from symptoms was complete within 3-5 days, and as revealed by the Skylab M131 Human Vestibular Function Experiment, all crewmembers were immune to experimentally induced motion sickness after mission day 8. This syndrome has been recognized as a possible threat to the early mission well-being and operational efficiency of at least some individuals who will fly space missions in the future. The causes of space motion sickness are not clearly understood, nor have satisfactory methods been identified to date for its prediction, prevention and treatment. In order to minimize the potential impact of this syndrome on Space Shuttle crew operations the National Aeronautics and Space Administration has organized a broad program of inter-disciplinary research involving a large number of scientists in the United States. Current research on the etiology of space motion sickness is based to a large extent on the so called sensory conflict theory. Investigations of the behavioral and neurophysiological consequences of intralabyrinthine, as well as intermodality sensory conflict are being performed. The work in this area is being influenced by the presumed alterations that occur in otolith behavior in weightlessness. In addition to sensory conflict, the possible relationship between observed cephalad shifts of body fluids in weightlessness and space motion sickness is being investigated. Research to date has failed to support the fluid shift theory. Research underway to identify reliable test methods for the prediction of susceptibility to space motion sickness on an individual basis includes attempts to (a) correlate susceptibility in different provocative environments; (b) correlate susceptibility with vestibular and non-vestibular response parameters, the latter including behavioral, hemodynamic and biochemical factors and (c) correlate susceptibility with rate of acquisition and length of retention of sensory adaptation. Controlled studies are also being performed during parabolic flight as a means of attempting to validate predictive tests for susceptibility to this syndrome. Research to develop new or improved countermeasures for space motion sickness is underway in two primary areas. One of these involves anti-motion sickness drugs. Significant achievements have been realized with regard to the identification of new highly efficacious drug combinations, dose levels and routes of administration. Although pronounced individual variations must be accounted for in selecting the optimum drug and dose level, combinations of promethazine plus ephedrine or scopolamine plus dexidrine are presently the drugs of choice. Work is also underway to identify side effects associated with anti-motion sickness drug use and to identify new drugs which may selectively modify activity in central neural pathways involved in motion sickness. In addition to research on drugs, efforts are being made to develop practical vestibular training methods. Variables which influence rate of acquisition of adaptation, length of retention of adaptation and transfer of protective adaptation to new environments are being evaluated. Also, included in this area is the use of biofeedback and autogenic therapy to train individuals to regulate autonomic responses associated with motion sickness. While valuable new knowledge is expected to evolve from these combined research programs, it is concluded that the final validation of predictive tests and countermeasures will require a series of controlled space flight experiments.     

Skylab experiment M-171 "Metabolic Activity"--results of the first manned mission

The experiment was performed to ascertain whether man's ability to perform mechanical work would be altered as a result of exposure to the weightless environment. Skylab II crewmen were exercised on a bicycle ergometer at loads approximating 25%, 50%, and 75% of their maximum oxygen uptake while their physiological responses were monitored. The results of these tests indicate that the crewmen had no significant decrement in their response to exercise during their exposure to zero gravity. Immediately postflight, however, all crewmen demonstrated an inability to perform the programmed exercise with the same metabolic effectiveness as they did both preflight and inflight. The most significant changes were elevated heart rates for the same work load and oxygen consumption (decreased oxygen pulse), decreased stroke volume, and decreased cardiac output at the same oxygen consumption level. It is apparent that the changes occurred inflight, but did not manifest themselves until the crewmen attempted to readapt to the 1-G environment.     

The critical satellite technical issues of future pervasive broadband low-cost communication networks

Using a baseline design for a 30/20 GHz system, this paper addresses the critical technical issues of signal waveform design, projected spacecraft technology, satellite launch options and satellite cost. With DPCM (differential pulse-coded modulation) video signal encoding, 32 Mb/s user-to-user data rate per channel, 10% overhead, two orthogonal polarizations, and crosstalk loss limited to 1 dB, TFM (tamed frequency modulation—a type of QPSK) permits about 75 channels/GHz of frequency allocation, i.e. about twice the capacity possible with MSK or SFSK (types of QPSK). The BOM (beginning of mission) weight and power of a baseline 400-channel multi-beam satellite is about 1800 kg and 5000 W. Each 35 Mb/s channel can support 1–10 video channels depending on the signal processing at the ground terminals. These weight and power estimates assume hardened digital logic, composite material for a multibeam antenna structure, high-efficiency solar cells (45 W/kg), NiH₂ batteries and 10W/20 GHz power amplifiers. If more speculative late-1980s solar cell technology is assumed, then the BOM weight decreases about 10–15%. Using the Space Transportation System being developed by NASA, geosynchronous deployment options are shown as a function of communications capacity. Based on a cost model for large communication satellites, the total space segment cost of two active satellites and one spare would be about $485M. This system would have a peak capacity of 14 Gb/s or 400-35 Mb/s simultaneous one-way channels. Demonstration and/or initial system (ground plus space) costs would be significantly less. It is concluded that the above baseline satellite appears to be technically feasible in the late-1980s.     

Risk Factors of Negative Impact on Objects of the Environment upon Accidents during Launches of Rocket-Space Hardware

The probabilistic aspects of rocket accidents during their launching and the motion in the troposphere are discussed. Schemes of forming the probability damage fields of risk recipients (the environment objects) are given. As an example of a use of the developments obtained, probability fields of objects" damage from the impact of an air shock wave are calculated.     

Searching for the magic bullet

A powerful statistical tool, paired-comparison, was tested as a method to determine the relative value American people place on two possibly competing paradigms in the United States Space Program: “Space as a Place to Explore” and “Civil and Commercial Uses of Space”. A limitation of the results, but not the methodology, is the participants were college students, not “voting” adults. Reliability and validity of items were developed and tested in two studies suggesting that the paired-comparison method is a reliable and powerful tool for measuring the relative value the public may place on programs within the US Space Program.     

The dynamics of blood biochemical parameters in cosmonauts during long-term space flights

Most of the previously obtained data on cosmonauts' metabolic state concerned certain stages of the postflight period. In this connection, all conclusions, as to metabolism peculiarities during the space flight, were to a large extent probabilistic. The purpose of this work was study of metabolism characteristics in cosmonauts directly during long-term space flights. In the capillary blood samples taken from a finger, by "Reflotron IV" biochemical analyzer, "Boehringer Mannheim" GmbH, Germany, adapted to weightlessness environments, the activity of GOT, GPT, CK, gamma-GT, total and pancreatic amylase, as well as concentration of hemoglobin, glucose, total bilirubin, uric acid, urea, creatinine, total, HDL- and LDL cholesterol, triglycerides had been determined. HDL/LDL-cholesterol ratio also was computed. The crewmembers of 6 main missions to the "Mir" orbital station, a total of 17 cosmonauts, were examined. Biochemical tests were carried out 30-60 days before launch, and in the flights different stages between the 25-th and the 423-rd days of flights. In cosmonauts during space flight had been found tendency to increase, in compare with basal level, GOT, GPT, total amylase activity, glucose and total cholesterol concentration, and tendency to decrease of CK activity, hemoglobin, HDL-cholesterol concentration, and HDL/LDL - cholesterol ratio. Some definite trends in variations of other determined biochemical parameters had not been found. The same trends of mentioned biochemical parameters alterations observed in majority of tested cosmonauts, allows to suppose existence of connection between noted metabolic alterations with influence of space flight conditions upon cosmonaut's body. Variations of other studied blood biochemical parameters depends on, probably, pure individual causes.