2001 Mars Odyssey Mission Summary

The 2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft, now in orbit at Mars, will observe the Martian surface at infrared and visible wavelengths to determine surface mineralogy and morphology, acquire global gamma ray and neutron observations for a full Martian year, and study the Mars radiation environment from orbit. The science objectives of this mission are to: (1) globally map the elemental composition of the surface, (2) determine the abundance of hydrogen in the shallow subsurface, (3) acquire high spatial and spectral resolution images of the surface mineralogy, (4) provide information on the morphology of the surface, and (5) characterize the Martian near-space radiation environment as related to radiation-induced risk to human explorers. To accomplish these objectives, the 2001 Mars Odyssey science payload includes a Gamma Ray Spectrometer (GRS), a multi-spectral Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS), and a radiation detector, the Martian Radiation Environment Experiment (MARIE). THEMIS and MARIE are mounted on the spacecraft with THEMIS pointed at nadir. GRS is a suite of three instruments: a Gamma Subsystem (GSS), a Neutron Spectrometer (NS) and a High-Energy Neutron Detector (HEND). The HEND and NS instruments are mounted on the spacecraft body while the GSS is on a 6-m boom. Some science data were collected during the cruise and aerobraking phases of the mission before the prime mission started. THEMIS acquired infrared and visible images of the Earth-Moon system and of the southern hemisphere of Mars. MARIE monitored the radiation environment during cruise. The GRS collected calibration data during cruise and aerobraking. Early GRS observations in Mars orbit indicated a hydrogen-rich layer in the upper meter of the subsurface in the Southern Hemisphere. Also, atmospheric densities, scale heights, temperatures, and pressures were observed by spacecraft accelerometers during aerobraking as the spacecraft skimmed the upper portions of the Martian atmosphere. This provided the first in-situ evidence of winter polar warming in the Mars upper atmosphere. The prime mission for 2001 Mars Odyssey began in February 2002 and will continue until August 2004. During this prime mission, the 2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft will also provide radio relays for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and European landers in early 2004. Science data from 2001 Mars Odyssey instruments will be provided to the science community via NASA’s Planetary Data System (PDS). The first PDS release of Odyssey data was in October 2002; subsequent releases occur every 3 months.     

Ionization processes in the heliosphere — Rates and methods of their determination

The rates of the most important ionization processes acting in interplanetary space on interstellar H, He, C, O, Ne and Ar atoms are critically reviewed in the paper. Their long-term modulations in the period 1974 – 1994 are reexamined using updated information on relevant cross-sections as well as direct or indirect data on variations of the solar wind/solar EUV fluxes based on IMP 8 measurements and monitoring of the solar 10.7 cm radio emission. It is shown that solar cycle related variations are pronounced (factor of 3 between maximum and minimum) especially for species such as He, Ne, C for which photoionization is the dominant loss process. Species sensitive primarily to the charge-exchange (as H) show only moderate fluctuations 20% around average. It is also demonstrated that new techniques that make use of simultaneous observations of neutral He atoms on direct and indirect orbits, or simultaneous measurements of He⁺ and He⁺⁺ pickup ions and solar wind particles can be useful tools for narrowing the uncertainties of the He photoionization rate caused by insufficient knowledge of the solar EUV flux and its variations.     

THE WIDE-BAND PLASMA WAVE INVESTIGATION

As part of the Cluster Wave Experiment Consortium (WEC), the Wide-Band (WBD) Plasma Wave investigation is designed to provide high-resolution measurements of both electric and magnetic fields in selected frequency bands from 25 Hz to 577 kHz. Continuous waveforms are digitised and transmitted in either a 220 kbit s^-1 real-time mode or a 73 kbit s^-1 recorded mode. The real-time data are received directly by a NASA Deep-Space Network (DSN) receiving station, and the recorded data are stored in the spacecraft solid-state recorder for later playback. In both cases the waveforms are Fourier transformed on the ground to provide high-resolution frequency-time spectrograms. The WBD measurements complement those of the other WEC instruments and also provide a unique new capability for performing very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI) measurements.     

Effects of polarization and resolution on SAR ATR

Lincoln Laboratory is investigating the detection and classification of stationary ground targets using high resolution, fully polarimetric, synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery. A study is summarized in which data collected by the Lincoln Laboratory 33 GHz SAR were used to perform a comprehensive comparison of automatic target recognition (ATR) performance for several polarization/resolution combinations. The Lincoln Laboratory baseline ATR algorithm suite was used, and was optimized for each polarization/resolution case. Both the HH polarization alone and the optimal combination of HH, HV, and VV were evaluated; the resolutions evaluated were 1 ft/spl times/1 ft and 1 m/spl times/1 m. The data set used for this study contained approximately 74 km/sup 2/ of clutter (56 km/sup 2/ of mixed clutter plus 18 km/sup 2/ of highly cultural clutter) and 136 tactical target images (divided equally between tanks and howitzers).     

Galileo Probe Nephelometer experiment

The objective of the Nephelometer Experient aboard the Probe of the Galileo mission is to explore the vertical structure and microphysical properties of the clouds and hazes in the atmosphere of Jupiter along the descent trajectory of the Probe (nominally from 0.1 to > 10 bars). The measurements, to be obtained at least every kilometer of the Probe descent, will provide the bases for inferences of mean particle sizes, particle number densities (and hence, opacities, mass densities, and columnar mass loading) and, for non-highly absorbing particles, for distinguishing between solid and liquid particles. These quantities, especially the location of the cloud bases, together with other quantities derived from this and other experiments aboard the Probe, will not only yield strong evidence for the composition of the particles, but, using thermochemical models, for species abundances as well. The measurements in the upper troposphere will provide ground truth data for correlation with remote sensing instruments aboard the Galileo Orbiter vehicle. The instrument is carefully designed and calibrated to measure the light scattering properties of the particulate clouds and hazes at scattering angles of 5.8°, 16°, 40°, 70°, and 178°. The measurement sensitivity and accuracy is such that useful estimates of mean particle radii in the range from about 0.2 to 20 can be inferred. The instrument will detect the presence of typical cloud particles with radii of about 1.0 , or larger, at concentrations of less than 1 cm³.Deceased.     

Energetic Particles Investigation (EPI)

The Energetic Particles Investigation (EPI) instrument operates during the pre-entry phase of the Galileo Probe. The major science objective is to study the energetic particle population in the innermost regions of the Jovian magnetosphere — within 4 radii of the cloud tops — and into the upper atmosphere. To achieve these objectives the EPI instrument will make omnidirectional measurements of four different particle species — electrons, protons, alpha-particles, and heavy ions (Z > 2). Intensity profiles with a spatial resolution of about 0.02 Jupiter radii will be recorded. Three different energy range channels are allocated to both electrons and protons to provide a rough estimate of the spectral index of the energy spectra. In addition to the omnidirectional measurements, sectored data will be obtained for certain energy range electrons, protons, and alpha-particles to determine directional anisotropies and particle pitch angle distributions. The detector assembly is a two-element telescope using totally depleted, circular silicon surfacebarrier detectors surrounded by a cylindrical tungsten shielding with a wall thickness of 4.86 g cm^-2. The telescope axis is oriented normal to the spherical surface of the Probe's rear heat shield which is needed for heat protection of the scientific payload during the Probe's entry into the Jovian atmosphere. The material thickness of the heat shield determines the lower energy threshold of the particle species investigated during the Probe's pre-entry phase. The EPI instrument is combined with the Lightning and Radio Emission Detector (LRD) such that the EPI sensor is connected to the LRD/EPI electronic box. In this way, both instruments together only have one interface of the Probe's power, command, and data unit.     

Modification of the SAR step transform algorithm

When the basic step transform algorithm is used to compress synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) signals in azimuth, the linear FM rate and sampling rate must satisfy certain tight constraints. In practice, these constraints cannot be satisfied and errors are introduced into the compressed SAR image. A modification is described of the basic step transform which incorporates interpolation and resampling into the algorithm. These changes allow the removal of the constraints and make the step transform more useful for the compression of real data. An autofocusing capability is also included, without introducing much additional complexity     

Empirical model of the high-latitude boundary of the Earth’s outer radiation belt at altitudes of up to 1000 km

An empirical model of the high-latitude boundary of the outer Earth’s radiation belt (ERB) has been presented, which is based on the measurement data of electron fluxes on the polar low-orbit CORONAS-Photon, Meteor-M1, and Meteor-M2 satellites. The boundary was determined by a sharp decrease to the background level of the flux of trapped electrons with energies of 100 or 200 keV in the polar part of the profile of the outer radiation belt. A numerical algorithm has been implemented to determine the time moment, when the fastest flux changes are recorded. The primary search was carried out, first, on 30 s averaged data, then repeated on data with a higher resolution. A functional dependence was obtained in order to approximate the obtained set of intersections of the boundary by elliptical curve. The empirical model constructed using the CORONAS-Photon measurement data in the epoch of anomalously low geomagnetic activity reflects the longitude structure of the high-latitude boundary of the outer radiation belt associated with the internal Earth’s magnetic field (MF), as well as its dependence on the universal time. Based on the data of intersections of the high-latitude boundary of the outer ERB (OERB) in the epoch of 2014–2016, the latitudinal shift of the boundary to the equator dependent on geomagnetic activity has been determined, as well as the nightside shift of the boundary due to the diurnal rotation of the Earth.     

The natural cytotoxicity in cosmonauts on board space stations

The nature of the changes of resistance to infection seems to be very important. Our studies indicate that different functions of natural killers could be depressed after the spaceflight. The decrease of the percentage of the lymphocytes that can bind target cells lead to the lowering of the “active” NK level and this can be resulted in the depression of total NK activity and lowering of resistance to viral and tumor antigens. The investigation of natural killer cells in cosmonauts before and after short and long-term spaceflights also revealed the important role of spaceflight duration, stress and individual immune reactivity.     

International Academy of Astronautics 5th cosmic study--preparing for a 21st century program of integrated,Lunar and Martian exploration and development (executive summary)

This report is an initial review of plans for a extensive program to survey and develop the Moon and to explore the planet Mars during the 21st century. It presents current typical plans for separate, associated and fully integrated programs of Lunar and Martian research, exploration and development, and concludes that detailed integrated plans must be prepared and be subject to formal criticism. Before responsible politicians approve a new thrust into space they will demand attractive, defensible, and detailed proposals that explain the WHEN, HOW and WHY of each stage of an expanded program of 21st century space research, development and exploration. In particular, the claims of daring, innovative, but untried systems must be compared with the known performance of existing technologies. The time has come to supersede the present haphazard approach to strategic space studies with a formal international structure to plan for future advanced space missions under the aegis of the world's national space agencies, and supported by governments and the corporate sector.