The Aouda.X space suit simulator and its applications to astrobiology

We have developed the space suit simulator Aouda.X, which is capable of reproducing the physical and sensory limitations a flight-worthy suit would have on Mars. Based upon a Hard-Upper-Torso design, it has an advanced human-machine interface and a sensory network connected to an On-Board Data Handling system to increase the situational awareness in the field. Although the suit simulator is not pressurized, the physical forces that lead to a reduced working envelope and physical performance are reproduced with a calibrated exoskeleton. This allows us to simulate various pressure regimes from 0.3-1 bar. Aouda.X has been tested in several laboratory and field settings, including sterile sampling at 2800 m altitude inside a glacial ice cave and a cryochamber at -110°C, and subsurface tests in connection with geophysical instrumentation relevant to astrobiology, including ground-penetrating radar, geoacoustics, and drilling. The communication subsystem allows for a direct interaction with remote science teams via telemetry from a mission control center. Aouda.X as such is a versatile experimental platform for studying Mars exploration activities in a high-fidelity Mars analog environment with a focus on astrobiology and operations research that has been optimized to reduce the amount of biological cross contamination. We report on the performance envelope of the Aouda.X system and its operational limitations.     

Tolerance of anhydrobiotic eggs of the Tardigrade Ramazzottius varieornatus to extreme environments

Tardigrades are tiny (less than 1?mm in length) invertebrate animals that have the potential to survive travel to other planets because of their tolerance to extreme environmental conditions by means of a dry ametabolic state called anhydrobiosis. While the tolerance of adult tardigrades to extreme environments has been reported, there are few reports on the tolerance of their eggs. We examined the ability of hydrated and anhydrobiotic eggs of the tardigrade Ramazzottius varieornatus to hatch after exposure to ionizing irradiation (helium ions), extremely low and high temperatures, and high vacuum. We previously reported that there was a similar pattern of tolerance against ionizing radiation between hydrated and anhydrobiotic adults. In contrast, anhydrobiotic eggs (50% lethal dose; 1690 Gy) were substantially more radioresistant than hydrated ones (50% lethal dose; 509 Gy). Anhydrobiotic eggs also have a broader temperature resistance compared with hydrated ones. Over 70% of the anhydrobiotic eggs treated at either -196°C or +50°C hatched successfully, but all the hydrated eggs failed to hatch. After exposure to high-vacuum conditions (5.3×10(-4) Pa to 6.2×10(-5) Pa), the hatchability of the anhydrobiotic eggs was comparable to that of untreated control eggs.     

EXPOSE-E: an ESA astrobiology mission 1.5 years in space

The multi-user facility EXPOSE-E was designed by the European Space Agency to enable astrobiology research in space (low-Earth orbit). On 7 February 2008, EXPOSE-E was carried to the International Space Station (ISS) on the European Technology Exposure Facility (EuTEF) platform in the cargo bay of Space Shuttle STS-122 Atlantis. The facility was installed at the starboard cone of the Columbus module by extravehicular activity, where it remained in space for 1.5 years. EXPOSE-E was returned to Earth with STS-128 Discovery on 12 September 2009 for subsequent sample analysis. EXPOSE-E provided accommodation in three exposure trays for a variety of astrobiological test samples that were exposed to selected space conditions: either to space vacuum, solar electromagnetic radiation at >110?nm and cosmic radiation (trays 1 and 3) or to simulated martian surface conditions (tray 2). Data on UV radiation, cosmic radiation, and temperature were measured every 10?s and downlinked by telemetry. A parallel mission ground reference (MGR) experiment was performed on ground with a parallel set of hardware and samples under simulated space conditions. EXPOSE-E performed a successful 1.5-year mission in space.     

Thyroid cell growth: sphingomyelin metabolism as non-invasive marker for cell damage acquired during spaceflight

Prolonged spaceflights are known to elicit changes in human cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, and nervous systems, whose functions are regulated by the thyroid gland. It is known that sphingomyelin metabolism is involved in apoptosis (programmed cell death) of thyroid cells induced by UVC radiation, but at present no data exists with regard to this phenomenon, which occurs during space missions. The aim of this study was to analyze, for the first time, the effect of spaceflight on the enzymes of sphingomyelin metabolism, sphingomyelinase, and sphingomyelin synthase, and to determine whether the ratio between the two enzymes might be used as a possible marker for thyroid activity during space missions. Both quiescent thyroid cells and thyroid cells stimulated to proliferate with thyrotropin (TSH) were cultured during the Eneide and Esperia missions on the International Space Station. The results show that during space missions the cells treated with TSH grew only 1.5?±?0.65-fold and, thus, behave similarly to quiescent cells, while on the ground the same cells, maintained in experimental conditions that reproduced those of the flight, grew 7.71?±?0.67-fold. Comparison of the sphingomyelinase/sphingomyelin-synthase ratio and the levels of Bax, STAT3, and RNA polymerase II in proliferating, quiescent, pro-apoptotic, or apoptotic cells demonstrated that thyroid cells during space missions were induced into a pro-apoptotic state. Given its specificity and the small amount of cells needed for analysis, we propose the use of the sphingomyelinase/sphingomyelin-synthase ratio as a marker of functional status of thyroid cells during space missions. Further studies could lead to its use in real time during prolonged spaceflights.     

The effect of a strong stellar flare on the atmospheric chemistry of an earth-like planet orbiting an M dwarf

Main sequence M stars pose an interesting problem for astrobiology: their abundance in our galaxy makes them likely targets in the hunt for habitable planets, but their strong chromospheric activity produces high-energy radiation and charged particles that may be detrimental to life. We studied the impact of the 1985 April 12 flare from the M dwarf AD Leonis (AD Leo), simulating the effects from both UV radiation and protons on the atmospheric chemistry of a hypothetical, Earth-like planet located within its habitable zone. Based on observations of solar proton events and the Neupert effect, we estimated a proton flux associated with the flare of 5.9?×?10? protons cm?2 sr?1 s?1 for particles with energies >10?MeV. Then we calculated the abundance of nitrogen oxides produced by the flare by scaling the production of these compounds during a large solar proton event called the Carrington event. The simulations were performed with a 1-D photochemical model coupled to a 1-D radiative/convective model. Our results indicate that the UV radiation emitted during the flare does not produce a significant change in the ozone column depth of the planet. When the action of protons is included, the ozone depletion reaches a maximum of 94% two years after the flare for a planet with no magnetic field. At the peak of the flare, the calculated UV fluxes that reach the surface, in the wavelength ranges that are damaging for life, exceed those received on Earth during less than 100?s. Therefore, flares may not present a direct hazard for life on the surface of an orbiting habitable planet. Given that AD Leo is one of the most magnetically active M dwarfs known, this conclusion should apply to planets around other M dwarfs with lower levels of chromospheric activity.     

Chemical mapping of proterozoic organic matter at submicron spatial resolution

A NanoSIMS ion microprobe was used to map the submicron-scale distributions of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, silicon, and oxygen in organic microfossils and laminae in a thin section of the approximately 0.85 billion year old Bitter Springs Formation of Australia. The data provide clues about the original chemistry of the microfossils, the silicification process, and the biosignatures of specific microorganisms and microbial communities. Chemical maps of fossil unicells and filaments revealed distinct wall- and sheath-like structures enriched in C, N, and S, consistent with their accepted biological origin. Surprisingly, organic laminae, previously considered to be amorphous, also exhibited filamentous and apparently compressed spheroidal structures defined by strong enrichments in C, N, and S. By analogy to NanoSIMS data from the well-preserved microfossils, these structures were interpreted as being of biological origin, most likely representing densely packed remnants of microbial mats. Given that the preponderance of organic matter in Precambrian sediments is similarly "amorphous," our findings indicate that a re-evaluation of ancient specimens via in situ structural, chemical, and isotopic study is warranted. Our analyses have led us to propose new criteria for assessing the biogenicity of problematic kerogenous materials, and, thus, these criteria can be applied to assessments of poorly preserved or fragmentary organic residues in early Archean sediments and any that might occur in meteorites or other extraterrestrial samples.     

火星等离子体环境探测

萤火一号(YH-1)探测器将对火星空间环境进行独立而深入的探测研究,探测各空间区域的等离子体特性及其对太阳风扰动的响应,以及火星离子逃逸过程,研究太阳风对火星水体损失的影响。为了实现这一目标,萤火一号搭载了等离子体探测包,包括2个离子分析器和1个电子分析器,具有较高的时间分辨率、能量分辨率,可以探测0.02～10 keV的离子、电子,同时能够对粒子的入射方向及1～44 au(1 au=9.1095×10~(-31)kg)质量范围内的离子成分进行分辨。本文阐述了萤火一号等离子体探测的科学意义,并对等离子体包的工作原理,仪器设计进行了介绍。     

Lunar astrobiology: a review and suggested laboratory equipment

In October of 2005, the European Space Agency (ESA) and Alcatel Alenia Spazio released a "call to academia for innovative concepts and technologies for lunar exploration." In recent years, interest in lunar exploration has increased in numerous space programs around the globe, and the purpose of our study, in response to the ESA call, was to draw on the expertise of researchers and university students to examine science questions and technologies that could support human astrobiology activity on the Moon. In this mini review, we discuss astrobiology science questions of importance for a human presence on the surface of the Moon and we provide a summary of key instrumentation requirements to support a lunar astrobiology laboratory.     

Discovery of abundant cellulose microfibers encased in 250 Ma Permian halite: a macromolecular target in the search for life on other planets

In this study, we utilized transmission electron microscopy to examine the contents of fluid inclusions in halite (NaCl) and solid halite crystals collected 650 m below the surface from the Late Permian Salado Formation in southeastern New Mexico (USA). The halite has been isolated from contaminating groundwater since deposition approximately 250 Ma ago. We show that abundant cellulose microfibers are present in the halite and appear remarkably intact. The cellulose is in the form of 5 nm microfibers as well as composite ropes and mats, and was identified by resistance to 0.5 N NaOH treatment and susceptibility to cellulase enzyme treatment. These cellulose microfibers represent the oldest native biological macromolecules to have been directly isolated, examined biochemically, and visualized (without growth or replication) to date. This discovery points to cellulose as an ideal macromolecular target in the search for life on other planets in our Solar System.     

Drilling systems for extraterrestrial subsurface exploration

Drilling consists of 2 processes: breaking the formation with a bit and removing the drilled cuttings. In rotary drilling, rotational speed and weight on bit are used to control drilling, and the optimization of these parameters can markedly improve drilling performance. Although fluids are used for cuttings removal in terrestrial drilling, most planetary drilling systems conduct dry drilling with an auger. Chip removal via water-ice sublimation (when excavating water-ice-bound formations at pressure below the triple point of water) and pneumatic systems are also possible. Pneumatic systems use the gas or vaporization products of a high-density liquid brought from Earth, gas provided by an in situ compressor, or combustion products of a monopropellant. Drill bits can be divided into coring bits, which excavate an annular shaped hole, and full-faced bits. While cylindrical cores are generally superior as scientific samples, and coring drills have better performance characteristics, full-faced bits are simpler systems because the handling of a core requires a very complex robotic mechanism. The greatest constraints to extraterrestrial drilling are (1) the extreme environmental conditions, such as temperature, dust, and pressure; (2) the light-time communications delay, which necessitates highly autonomous systems; and (3) the mission and science constraints, such as mass and power budgets and the types of drilled samples needed for scientific analysis. A classification scheme based on drilling depth is proposed. Each of the 4 depth categories (surface drills, 1-meter class drills, 10-meter class drills, and deep drills) has distinct technological profiles and scientific ramifications.