Learning ‘smaller, faster, cheaper’ from the Applied Physics laboratory

By demonstrating the ability to build ‘smaller, faster, and cheaper’ space devices, the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) has played a key role in influencing NASA's current Discovery program. The APL Space Department was founded by Richard B. Kershner. This article examines the key elements of Kershner's leadership and management philosophy through the Transit satellite program and the Delta series spacecraft.     

Key science questions from the second conference on early Mars: geologic, hydrologic, and climatic evolution and the implications for life

In October 2004, more than 130 terrestrial and planetary scientists met in Jackson Hole, WY, to discuss early Mars. The first billion years of martian geologic history is of particular interest because it is a period during which the planet was most active, after which a less dynamic period ensued that extends to the present day. The early activity left a fascinating geological record, which we are only beginning to unravel through direct observation and modeling. In considering this time period, questions outnumber answers, and one of the purposes of the meeting was to gather some of the best experts in the field to consider the current state of knowledge, ascertain which questions remain to be addressed, and identify the most promising approaches to addressing those questions. The purpose of this report is to document that discussion. Throughout the planet's first billion years, planetary-scale processes-including differentiation, hydrodynamic escape, volcanism, large impacts, erosion, and sedimentation-rapidly modified the atmosphere and crust. How did these processes operate, and what were their rates and interdependencies? The early environment was also characterized by both abundant liquid water and plentiful sources of energy, two of the most important conditions considered necessary for the origin of life. Where and when did the most habitable environments occur? Did life actually occupy them, and if so, has life persisted on Mars to the present? Our understanding of early Mars is critical to understanding how the planet we see today came to be.     

Renewal, reform, and return to flight

The Washington Watch column discusses budget issues on Capitol Hill relating to aerospace issues, including the shuttle's delayed return to flight and Michael Griffin becoming the new NASA administrator; the Transportation Security Administration becoming downsized; and new personnel at the Pentagon.     

Caution, contention, and consolidation

The Washington Watch column provides an overview of NASA's cautious approach to the launch of Space Shuttle Discovery STS-114, contention between the Air Force and administration about production of the F/A-22 Raptor aircraft, and consolidation among U.S. airline companies.     

Numerical Modeling of the Ring Current and Plasmasphere

Over the last 25 years, considerable scientific effort has been expended in the development of quantitative models of the dynamics of Earth's inner magnetosphere, particularly on studies of the injection of the storm-time ring current and of dynamic variations in the shape and size of the plasmasphere. Nearly all modeling studies of ring-current injection agree that time-varying magnetospheric convection can produce approximately the ion fluxes that are observed in the storm-time ring current, but the truth of that assumption has never been demonstrated conclusively. It is not clear that the actual variations of convection electric fields are strong enough to explain the observed flux increases in ~100 keV ions at the peak of the storm-time ring current. Observational comparisons are generally far from tight, primarily due to the paucity of ring-current measurements and to basic limitations of single-point observations. Also, most of the theoretical models combine state-of-the-art treatment of some aspects of the problem with highly simplified treatment of other aspects. Even the most sophisticated treatments of the sub-problems include substantial uncertainties, including the following: (i) There is still considerable theoretical and observational uncertainty about the dynamics of the large-scale electric fields in the inner magnetosphere; (ii) No one has ever calculated a force-balanced, time-dependent magnetic-field model consistent with injection of the storm-time ring current; (iii) The most obvious check on the overall realism of a ring-current injection model would be to compare its predicted Dst index against observations; however, theoretical calculations of that index usually employ the Dessler-Parker-Sckopke relation, which was derived from the assumption of a dipole magnetic field and cannot be applied reliably to conditions where the plasma pressure significantly distorts the field; (iv) Although loss rates by charge exchange and Coulomb scattering can be calculated with reasonable accuracy, it remains unclear whether wave-induced ion precipitation plays an important role in the decay of the ring current. However, considerable progress could be made in the next few years. Spacecraft that can provide images of large regions of the inner magnetosphere should eliminate much of the present ambiguity associated with single-point measurements. On the theoretical side, it will soon be possible to construct models that, for the first time, will solve a complete set of large-scale equations for the entire inner magnetosphere. The biggest uncertainty in the calculation of the size and shape of the plasmasphere lies in the dynamics and structure of the electric field. It is still not clear how important a role interchange instability plays in determining the shape of the plasmapause or in creating density fine structure.     

Atmosphere behavior in gas-closed mouse-algal systems: An experimental and modelling study

Concepts of biologically-based regenerative life support systems anticipate the use of photosynthetic organisms for air revitalization. However, mismatches in the rates of production and uptake of oxygen or carbon dioxide between the crew and the plants will lead to an accumulation or depletion of these gases beyond tolerable limits. One method for correcting these atmospheric changes is to use physicochemical devices. This would conflict with the constraint of minimal size and weight imposed upon the successful development of a competitive bioregenerative system. An alternate control strategy is based upon reducing the gas exchange mismatch by manipulation of those environmental parameters known to affect plant or algae gas exchange ratios. We have initiated a research program using a dual approach of mathematical modelling and laboratory experimentation aimed at examining the gas exchange characteristics of artificial animal/plant systems closed to the ambient atmosphere. Our goal is to develop control techniques and management strategies for maintaining the atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen at physiological levels. A mathematical model simulating the atmospheric behavior in these systems has been developed and an experimental gas-closed system has been constructed. These will be described and preliminary results will be presented.     

Einstein observations of cool stars

Observations of cool stars with the $\text{Einstein}$ Observatory (HEAO-2) have brought about a fundamental change in our knowledge and understanding of stellar coronae. The existence of X-ray emission from stars throughout the H-R diagram, the wide range of X-ray luminosity within a given spectral and luminosity class, and the strong correlation of X-ray luminosity with stellar age and rotation are among the more significant $\text{Einstein}$ results. These results are strong evidence for the influence of stellar dynamo action on the formation and heating of stellar coronae. A discussion of relevant consortium and guest observations will be given. The Hyades cluster, in particular, will serve as an example to demonstrate the usefulness of X-ray observations in the study of stellar activity and coronal evolution.     

Automobile Navigation: Where is it Going?

Automobile navigation systems based on dead reckoning, map matching, satellite positioning and other navigation technologies are under active development. ``Map intelligent' systems achieve high relative accuracy by matching dead-reckoned paths with road geometry encoded in a digital map data base that may also serve other functions such as vehicle routing and geocoding. Satellite-based navigation systems achieve high absolute accuracy but require dead reckoning augmentation because of signal aberrations in the automotive environment. Future systems will probably include multiple navigation technologies. Issues influencing the design of future systems include safety concerns regarding the driver interface, and the future availability of comprehensive map data bases, real-time traffic data, and mobile data communication links necessary for on-board generation of optimum routes.