Impact analysis of the transponder time delay on radio-tracking observables

Accurate tracking of probes is one of the key points of space exploration. Range and Doppler techniques are the most commonly used. In this paper we analyze the impact of the transponder delay, $i.e$. the processing time between reception and re-emission of a two-way tracking link at the satellite, on tracking observables and on spacecraft orbits. We show that this term, only partially accounted for in the standard formulation of computed space observables, can actually be relevant for future missions with high nominal tracking accuracies or for the re-processing of old missions. We present several applications of our formulation to Earth flybys, the NASA GRAIL and the ESA BepiColombo missions.     

A Numerical Model of the SEIS Leveling System Transfer Matrix and Resonances: Application to SEIS Rotational Seismology and Dynamic Ground Interaction

Both sensors of the SEIS instrument (VBBs and SPs) are mounted on the mechanical leveling system (LVL), which has to ensure a level placement on the Martian ground under currently unknown local conditions, and provide the mechanical coupling of the seismometers to the ground. We developed a simplified analytical model of the LVL structure in order to reproduce its mechanical behavior by predicting its resonances and transfer function. This model is implemented numerically and allows to estimate the effects of the LVL on the data recorded by the VBBs and SPs on Mars. The model is validated through comparison with the horizontal resonances (between 35 and 50 Hz) observed in laboratory measurements. These modes prove to be highly dependent of the ground horizontal stiffness and torque. For this reason, an inversion study is performed and the results are compared with some experimental measurements of the LVL feet’s penetration in a martian regolith analog. This comparison shows that the analytical model can be used to estimate the elastic ground properties of the InSight landing site. Another application consists in modeling the 6 sensors on the LVL at their real positions, also considering their sensitivity axes, to study the performances of the global SEIS instrument in translation and rotation. It is found that the high frequency ground rotation can be measured by SEIS and, when compared to the ground acceleration, can provide ways to estimate the phase velocity of the seismic surface waves at shallow depths. Finally, synthetic data from the active seismic experiment made during the HP³ penetration and SEIS rotation noise are compared and used for an inversion of the Rayleigh phase velocity. This confirms the perspectives for rotational seismology with SEIS which will be developed with the SEIS data acquired during the commissioning phase after landing.     

Geology and Physical Properties Investigations by the InSight Lander

Although not the prime focus of the InSight mission, the near-surface geology and physical properties investigations provide critical information for both placing the instruments (seismometer and heat flow probe with mole) on the surface and for understanding the nature of the shallow subsurface and its effect on recorded seismic waves. Two color cameras on the lander will obtain multiple stereo images of the surface and its interaction with the spacecraft. Images will be used to identify the geologic materials and features present, quantify their areal coverage, help determine the basic geologic evolution of the area, and provide ground truth for orbital remote sensing data. A radiometer will measure the hourly temperature of the surface in two spots, which will determine the thermal inertia of the surface materials present and their particle size and/or cohesion. Continuous measurements of wind speed and direction offer a unique opportunity to correlate dust devils and high winds with eolian changes imaged at the surface and to determine the threshold friction wind stress for grain motion on Mars. During the first two weeks after landing, these investigations will support the selection of instrument placement locations that are relatively smooth, flat, free of small rocks and load bearing. Soil mechanics parameters and elastic properties of near surface materials will be determined from mole penetration and thermal conductivity measurements from the surface to 3–5 m depth, the measurement of seismic waves during mole hammering, passive monitoring of seismic waves, and experiments with the arm and scoop of the lander (indentations, scraping and trenching). These investigations will determine and test the presence and mechanical properties of the expected 3–17 m thick fragmented regolith (and underlying fractured material) built up by impact and eolian processes on top of Hesperian lava flows and determine its seismic properties for the seismic investigation of Mars’ interior.     

Impact of loading effects on determination of the International Terrestrial Reference Frame

The International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF), as a realization of the International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS), is represented by a set of station positions and linear velocities. They are intended to be used as regularized coordinates to which some corrections should be added to access instantaneous coordinates. The latest ITRS realization is the ITRF2005, which has integrated time series of station positions to form long-term solutions for the four space geodetic techniques. Currently, a purely linear model is used to parameterize station displacements in the estimation process, plus occasional discontinuities in case of earthquakes or equipment changes. However the input data have been derived without applying surface loading models and so surface loading effects are supposed to be embedded in the coordinates as measured quantities. We evaluate the effect of applying a posteriori loading corrections, which include the effect of atmospheric, non-tidal ocean, and continental water loading, to time series of positions estimated from Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR), Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI), and Global Positioning System (GPS) data. We notice that they reduce about 50% or more of the annual signals in the translation and scale parameter time series of the SLR and VLBI techniques, except in SLR Z translation. In general, the estimated secular frame definition is negligibly affected and estimated positions and velocities are not significantly modified for stations that have accumulated a large number of observations. A multi-technique combination of such derived frames allows concluding that, for some cases, loading model corrections might degrade co-located station coordinates almost as much as they benefit them. However, most significant improvement of the estimated secular coordinates is observed for stations with less than 100 estimated positions as demonstrated with a multi-technique combination.     

2001年9月15日Cluster卫星对电流片的观测研究

2001年9月15日0430-0515 UT期间,Cluster卫星多次穿越磁尾电流片.由FGM、CIS等仪器获得了电流片磁场,粒子速度等数据变化情况,并得到了磁尾高速流的两次明显反转.本文采用GSM坐标系.利用求磁场空间梯度张量的方法获得了越尾电流,其电流密度的峰值为28nA/m2.并对电流片在垂直方向上的摆动和在晨昏方向的波动现象进行了分析.数据显示此时电流片为薄电流片并有一个变薄的趋势,其厚度大约为0.2-0.3 Re.磁场重联时地向流与尾向流均超过了1000 km/s,并测得了电流片的法线方向和运动速度,从而得到了磁尾电流片的结构和运动情况.      

Water, Life, and Planetary Geodynamical Evolution

In our search for life on other planets over the past decades, we have come to understand that the solid terrestrial planets provide much more than merely a substrate on which life may develop. Large-scale exchange of heat and volatile species between planetary interiors and hydrospheres/atmospheres, as well as the presence of a magnetic field, are important factors contributing to the habitability of a planet. This chapter reviews these processes, their mutual interactions, and the role life plays in regulating or modulating them.     

The Energetic Particle and Plasma Spectrometer Instrument on the MESSENGER Spacecraft

The Energetic Particle and Plasma Spectrometer (EPPS) package on the MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging (MESSENGER) mission to Mercury is composed of two sensors, the Energetic Particle Spectrometer (EPS) and the Fast Imaging Plasma Spectrometer (FIPS). EPS measures the energy, angular, and compositional distributions of the high-energy components of the in situ electrons (>20 keV) and ions (>5 keV/nucleon), while FIPS measures the energy, angular, and compositional distributions of the low-energy components of the ion distributions (<50 eV/charge to 20 keV/charge). Both EPS and FIPS have very small footprints, and their combined mass (∼3 kg) is significantly lower than that of comparable instruments.     

A Portrait of the Nucleus of Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko

In 2003, comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko was selected as the new target of the Rosetta mission as the most suitable alternative to the original target, comet 46P/Wirtanen, on the basis of orbital considerations even though very little was known about the physical properties of its nucleus. In a matter of a few years and based on highly focused observational campaigns as well as thorough theoretical investigations, a detailed portrait of this nucleus has been established that will serve as a baseline for planning the Rosetta operations and observations. In this review article, we present a novel method to determine the size and shape of a cometary nucleus: several visible light curves were inverted to produce a size–scale free three–dimensional shape, the size scaling being imposed by a thermal light curve. The procedure converges to two solutions which are only marginally different. The nucleus of comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko emerges as an irregular body with an effective radius (that of the sphere having the same volume) = 1.72 km and moderate axial ratios a/b = 1.26 and a/c = 1.5 to 1.6. The overall dimensions measured along the principal axis for the two solutions are 4.49–4.75 km, 3.54–3.77 km and 2.94–2.92 km. The nucleus is found to be in principal axis rotation with a period = 12.4–12.7 h. Merging all observational constraints allow us to specify two regions for the direction of the rotational axis of the nucleus: RA = 220°^+50° _−30° and Dec = −70^° ± 10^° (retrograde rotation) or RA = 40°^+50° _-30° and Dec = +70^°± 10^° (prograde), the better convergence of the various determinations presently favoring the first solution. The phase function, although constrained by only two data points, exhibits a strong opposition effect rather similar to that of comet 9P/Tempel 1. The definition of the disk–integrated albedo of an irregular body having a strong opposition effect raises problems, and the various alternatives led to a R-band geometric albedo in the range 0.045–0.060, consistent with our present knowledge of cometary nuclei. The active fraction is low, not exceeding ~ 7% at perihelion, and is probably limited to one or two active regions subjected to a strong seasonal effect, a picture coherent with the asymmetric behaviour of the coma. Our slightly downward revision of the size of the nucleus of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko resulting from the present analysis (with the correlative increase of the albedo compared to the originally assumed value of 0.04), and our best estimate of the bulk density of 370 kg m⁻³, lead to a mass of ~ 8 × 10¹² kg which should ease the landing of Philae and insure the overall success of the Rosetta mission.     

Development of the Primary Sorption Pump for the SEIS Seismometer of the InSight Mission to Mars

We report on the development of a passive sorption pump, capable of maintaining high-vacuum conditions in the InSight seismometer throughout the duration of any extended mission. The adsorber material is a novel zeolite-loaded aerogel (ZLA) composite, which consists of fine zeolite particles homogeneously dispersed throughout a porous silica network. The outgassing species within the SEIS evacuated container were analyzed and the outgassing rate was estimated by different methods. The results were used to optimize the ZLA composition to adsorb the outgassing constituents, dominated by water, while minimizing the SEIS bakeout constraints. The InSight ZLA composite additionally facilitated substantial CO₂ adsorption capabilities for risk mitigation against external leaks in Mars atmosphere. To comply with the stringent particle requirements, the ZLA getters were packaged in sealed containers, open to the SEIS interior through \(1~\upmu\mbox{m}\)-size pore filters. Results from experimental validation and verification tests of the packaged getters are presented. The pressure forecast based on these data, corroborated by rudimentary in situ pressure measurements, infer SEIS operational pressures not exceeding \(10^{-5}~\mbox{mbar}\) throughout the mission.