Closed-Form Expressions for Noncoherent Radar Integration Gain and Collapsing Loss

Closed-form formulas allow rapid determination of noncoherent integration gain and integration loss when the single-sample IF signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is known. In addition, if the required SNR is known for any number of integrated pulses, the required SNR for any other number is easily determined. A closed-form expression is given for radar collapsing loss, expressed in terms of the equivalent integrated signal-to-noise ratio required to produce a given combination of false-alarm and detection probabilities. Alternatively, the single-sample signal-to-noise ratio of a set of samples may be used together with the closed-form expression for integration gain to get the equivalent integrated signal-to-noise ratio.     

Imaging of the outer planets and satellites

Imaging is the most widely applicable single means of exploring the outer planets and their satellites and also complements other planet-oriented instruments. Imaging generally is more effectively carried out from a three-axis stabilized spacecraft than from a spinning one.Both specific experimental and broader exploratory goals must be recognized. Photography of Jupiter from terrestrial telescopes has revealed features which were neither predictable or predicted. Close-up imaging from fly-bys and orbiters affords the opportunity for discovery of atmospheric phenomena on the outer planets forever beyond the reach of terrestrial laboratories and intuition. On the other hand, a large number of specific applications of close-up imaging to study the giant planets are suggested by experience in photography from Earth and Mars orbit, and by ground-based telescopic studies of Jupiter and Saturn. Photographic observations of horizontal and vertical cloud structure at both global and finer scale, and motions and other time changes, will be essential for the study of atmospheric circulation. Size and composition of cloud particles also is a credible objective of fly-by and orbiter missions carrying both imaging and photo-polarimeter experiments.The satellites of the outer planets actually constitute three distinct classes: lunar-sized objects, asteroidal-sized objects, and particulate rings. Imaging promises to be the primary observational tool for each category with results that could impact scientific thinking in the late 70's and 80's as significantly as has close-up photography of Mars and the Moon in the last 10 yr.Finally, it should be recognized that photography occupies a unique role in the interaction between science and the popular mind. This popular, educational aspect of imaging constitutes a unique aspect of 20th Century culture. Imaging therefore is not only a primary basis for scientific discovery in the exploration of the outer planets, but an important human endeavor of enduring significance.Contribution No. 2163 of the Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91109.This is one of the publications by the Science Advisory Group.     

Radio physics of the outer solar system

The remote sensing of low frequency nonthermal radio emission is the astronomy of field and particle phenomena. Observations conducted from space lead to information about the composition and dynamic processes occurring in planetary magnetospheres as well as within the interplanetary and interstellar medium. The potential of this technique is demonstrated by considering observations obtained from Earth orbit missions.This is one of the publications by the Science Advisory Group.     

Elemental and isotopic abundances of the volatile elements in the outer planets

Certain fundamental scientific problems of a cosmological as well as cosmogonic character, may be solved by the insertion of entry probes into the atmospheres of the outer planets. It is recommended that attempts be made to determine the elemental and isotopic abundances of H, D, He³, He⁴, C, N, O, S, and the rare gas elements. These determinations should cast much light on the processes which participated in the assembly of the giant planets. This would give powerful boundary conditions on theories of the origin of the solar system, and would also give additional experimental information bearing on cosmology.This is one of the publications by the Science Advisory Group.     

Theoretical studies of interplanetary propagation and acceleration

Studies evaluating the transport coefficients for energetic particles in interplanetary space are described in relation to particle data.In position space, the main mode of propagation is along field lines but perpendicular diffusion and drift motion is also possible. Diffusion coefficients based on interplanetary magnetic field data are either derived from quasi-linear, adiabatic theory or this theory corrected for finite scattering near 90° pitch angle or by numerical techniques. Relevant particle data includes solar proton event time profile and anisotropy measurements. In general, when Fokker-Planck transport equation solutions are fitted to particle data, the parallel diffusion coefficients obtained still appear rather larger than those given by theoretical estimates. Perpendicular diffusion is shown to be due to field line wandering and random drift motion effects. The importance of drift motion in cosmic ray modulation theory is mentioned.Although much emphasis is currently placed upon shock acceleration in CIR's, statistical acceleration in interplanetary space must be considered. Energetic particles may gain energy from longitudinal waves and cyclotron resonance interactions. Analytical and numerical estimates of the energy space diffusion coefficients are considered. Some reveal a surprising importance to this statistical acceleration and can explain a variety of data.Presented at the Fifth International Symposium on Solar-Terrestrial Physics, held at Ottawa, Canada, May 1982.     

Solar cycle variations of cosmic ray intensity and large-scale structure of the heliosphere

This review summarizes some of the recent results obtained by ground-based detectors recording cosmic-ray intensity at high energies (>1 GeV) for almost five decades. The long-term changes observed in the isotropic and anisotropic components of cosmic-ray intensity are presented. It is noted in particular that significant changes occurred in the characteristics of cosmic-ray modulation after the 1969–70 period. Most of these are definitively related to the reversal of the solar poloidal field; their characteristics are described with a view to relate these with the heliospheric configuration. Anomalies in the variational characteristics of both isotropic and anisotropic parts of cosmic ray intensity, noticed particularly during the period of very high speed solar wind streams, are discussed in detail. Phenomena with periodicities of 11 and 22 years occur simultaneously; their relative importance is derived and related to interplanetary variables. Suggestions for further studies, as needed, are also incorporated.Presented at the Fifth International Symposium on Solar-Terrestrial Physics, held at Ottawa, Canada, May 1982.     

IMF control of the Earth's magnetosphere

We review recent progress in the understanding of the IMF control on the Earth's magnetosphere through the reconnection process. Major points include, (1) the identification of the magnetopause structure under the southward IMF polarity to be the rotational discontinuity and the resulting inference that the reconnection line is formed in the equatorial region, and (2) the confirmation from several observational aspects that under the northward IMF the reconnection takes place in the polar cusp. The point (1) is consistent with the observed correlations of geomagnetic indices with IMF but raises an important theoretical issue, and the point (2) is accompanied by an interesting issue of explaining why the polar cap electron precipitation is more energetic under such IMF conditions. Critical studies have reaffirmed the view that the energy supplied by reconnection is partly transported directly to the ionosphere to drive the DP-2 type current system but at the same time it is partly stored in the magnetic field of the tail to be unloaded 0.5 1 hr later to produce the expansion phase of substorm.Presented at the Fifth International Symposium on Solar-Terrestrial Physics, held at Ottawa, Canada, May 1982.     

French research program on the physiological problems caused by weightlessness. Use of the primate model

The need to acquire a better knowledge of the main biological problems induced by microgravity implies--in addition to human experimentation--the use of animal models, and primates seem to be particularly well adapted to this type of research. The major areas of investigation to be considered are the phospho-calcium metabolism and the metabolism of supporting tissues, the hydroelectrolytic metabolism, the cardiovascular function, awakeness, sleep-awakeness cycles, the physiology of equilibrium and the pathophysiology of space sickness. Considering this program, the Centre d'Etudes et de Recherches de Medecine Aerospatiale, under the sponsorship of the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales, developed both a program of research on restrained primates for the French-U.S. space cooperation (Spacelab program) and for the French-Soviet space cooperation (Bio-cosmos program), and simulation of the effects of microgravity by head-down bedrest. Its major characteristics are discussed in the study.     

Italy's contribution, from a medical standpoint, to the space safety of payload scientists, and perspectives for the future

In Italy, the selection of the Italian payload scientists has been performed according to the Spacelab Program of ESA. Twenty-four subjects underwent a screening performed by the Health Service of Italian Air Force. They were requested to pass an exercise test on treadmill and another ten-minute test on centrifuge, subject to the effect of +3 Gz. The authors briefly describe the results of the test. Noteworthy is the determination of Central Flicker Fusion Frequency. This parameter makes it possible to assess the endurance level of the subject, much earlier than other techniques (e.g. EKG). The importance of an accurate preliminary screening is emphasized as well as of successive training periods. Future studies will be undertaken to compare evoked cortical potentials with behaviour parameters of space safety, with a view to setting up a subtle tool of evaluation for both future candidates and payload scientists.