Landforms of Europa and selection of landing sites

Three major features make Europa a unique scientific target for a lander-oriented interplanetary mission: (1) the knowledge of the composition of the surface of Europa is limited to interpretations of the spectral data, (2) a lander could provide unique new information about outer parts of the solar system, and (3) Europa may have a subsurface ocean that potentially may harbor life, the traces of which may occur on the surface and could be sampled directly by a lander. These characteristics of Europa bring the requirement of safe landing to the highest priority level because any successful landing on the surface of this moon will yield scientific results of fundamental importance. The safety requirements include four major components. (1) A landing site should preferentially be on the anti-Jovian hemisphere of Europa in order to facilitate the orbital maneuvers of the spacecraft. (2) A landing site should be on the leading hemisphere of Europa in order to extend the lifetime of a lander and sample pristine material of the planet. (3) Images with the highest possible resolution must be available for the selection of landing sites. (4) The terrain for landing must have morphology (relief) that minimizes the risk of landing and represents a target that is important from a scientific point of view. These components severely restrict the selection of regions for landing on the surface of Europa. After the photogeologic analysis of all Galileo images with a resolution of better than about 70 m/pixel taken for the leading hemisphere of Europa, we propose one primary and two secondary (backup) landing sites. The primary site (51.8°S, 177.2°W) is within a pull-apart zone affected by a small chaos. The first backup site (68.1°S, 196.7°W) is also inside of a pull-apart zone and is covered by images of the lower resolution (51.4 m/pixel). The second backup site (2.4°N, 181.1°W) is imaged by relatively low-resolution images (∼70 m/pixel) and corresponds to a cluster of small patches of dark and probably smooth plains that may represent landing targets of the highest scientific priority from the scientific point of view. The lack of the high-resolution images for this region prevents, however, its selection as the primary landing target.     

Status of the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA)

The Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA), a joint US/German project, is a 2.5-m infrared airborne telescope carried by a Boeing 747-SP that flies in the stratosphere at altitudes as high as 45,000 ft (13.72 km). This facility is capable of observing from 0.3 μm to 1.6 mm with an average transmission greater than 80% averaged over all wavelengths. SOFIA will be staged out of the NASA Dryden Flight Research Center aircraft operations facility at Palmdale, CA. The SOFIA Science Mission Operations (SMO) will be located at NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA. First science flights began in 2010 and a full operations schedule of up to one hundred 8 to 10 hour-long flights per year will be reached by 2014. The observatory is expected to operate until the mid-2030s. SOFIA’s initial complement of seven focal plane instruments includes broadband imagers, moderate-resolution spectrographs that will resolve broad features due to dust and large molecules, and high-resolution spectrometers capable of studying the kinematics of atomic and molecular gas at sub-km/s resolution. We describe the SOFIA facility and outline the opportunities for observations by the general scientific community and for future instrumentation development. The operational characteristics of the SOFIA first-generation instruments are summarized. The status of the flight test program is discussed and we show First Light images obtained at wavelengths from 5.4 to 37 μm with the FORCAST imaging camera. Additional information about SOFIA is available at http://www.sofia.usra.edu and http://www.sofia.usra.edu/Science/docs/SofiaScienceVision051809-1.pdf.     

SOLID3: a multiplex antibody microarray-based optical sensor instrument for in situ life detection in planetary exploration

The search for unequivocal signs of life on other planetary bodies is one of the major challenges for astrobiology. The failure to detect organic molecules on the surface of Mars by measuring volatile compounds after sample heating, together with the new knowledge of martian soil chemistry, has prompted the astrobiological community to develop new methods and technologies. Based on protein microarray technology, we have designed and built a series of instruments called SOLID (for "Signs Of LIfe Detector") for automatic in situ detection and identification of substances or analytes from liquid and solid samples (soil, sediments, or powder). Here, we present the SOLID3 instrument, which is able to perform both sandwich and competitive immunoassays and consists of two separate functional units: a Sample Preparation Unit (SPU) for 10 different extractions by ultrasonication and a Sample Analysis Unit (SAU) for fluorescent immunoassays. The SAU consists of five different flow cells, with an antibody microarray in each one (2000 spots). It is also equipped with an exclusive optical package and a charge-coupled device (CCD) for fluorescent detection. We demonstrated the performance of SOLID3 in the detection of a broad range of molecular-sized compounds, which range from peptides and proteins to whole cells and spores, with sensitivities at 1-2?ppb (ng?mL?1) for biomolecules and 10? to 103 spores per milliliter. We report its application in the detection of acidophilic microorganisms in the Río Tinto Mars analogue and report the absence of substantial negative effects on the immunoassay in the presence of 50?mM perchlorate (20 times higher than that found at the Phoenix landing site). Our SOLID instrument concept is an excellent option with which to detect biomolecules because it avoids the high-temperature treatments that may destroy organic matter in the presence of martian oxidants.     

A two-tiered approach to assessing the habitability of exoplanets

In the next few years, the number of catalogued exoplanets will be counted in the thousands. This will vastly expand the number of potentially habitable worlds and lead to a systematic assessment of their astrobiological potential. Here, we suggest a two-tiered classification scheme of exoplanet habitability. The first tier consists of an Earth Similarity Index (ESI), which allows worlds to be screened with regard to their similarity to Earth, the only known inhabited planet at this time. The ESI is based on data available or potentially available for most exoplanets such as mass, radius, and temperature. For the second tier of the classification scheme we propose a Planetary Habitability Index (PHI) based on the presence of a stable substrate, available energy, appropriate chemistry, and the potential for holding a liquid solvent. The PHI has been designed to minimize the biased search for life as we know it and to take into account life that might exist under more exotic conditions. As such, the PHI requires more detailed knowledge than is available for any exoplanet at this time. However, future missions such as the Terrestrial Planet Finder will collect this information and advance the PHI. Both indices are formulated in a way that enables their values to be updated as technology and our knowledge about habitable planets, moons, and life advances. Applying the proposed metrics to bodies within our Solar System for comparison reveals two planets in the Gliese 581 system, GJ 581 c and d, with an ESI comparable to that of Mars and a PHI between that of Europa and Enceladus.     

ISCCP cloud analysis algorithm intercomparison

The International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) will provide a uniform global climatology of satellite-measured radiances and derive a climatology of cloud radiative properties from these radiances. For this purpose, a pilot study of cloud analysis algorithms was initiated to define a state-of-the-art algorithm for ISCCP. This study compared the results of applying the nine different algorithms to the same satellite radiance data. The comparison allowed for a sharper understanding of the process of detecting clouds and shows that all algorithms can be improved by better information about clear sky radiance values (essentially equivalent to surface property information) and by better understanding of cloud size distribution variations. The dependence of all methods on cloud size distribution led to selection of an advanced bispectral threshold technique for ISCCP because this method is currently better understood and more developed. Further research on cloud algorithms is clearly suggested by these results.     

Cataractogenic potential of ionizing radiations in animal models that simulate man.

Aspects of experiments on radiation-induced lenticular opacification during the life spans of two animal models, the New Zealand white rabbit and the rhesus monkey, are compared and contrasted with published results from a life span study of another animal model, the beagle dog, and the most recent data from the ongoing study of the survivors from radiation exposure at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. An important connection among the three animal studies is that all the measurements of cataract indices were made by one of the authors (A.C.L.), so variation form personal subjectivity was reduced to a minimum. The primary objective of the rabbit experiments (radiations involved: 56Fe, 40Ar and 20Ne ions and 60Co gamma photons) is an evaluation of hazards to astronauts from galactic particulate radiations. An analogous evaluation of hazards from solar flares during space flight is being made with monkeys exposed to 32, 55, 138 and 400 MeV protons. Conclusions are drawn about the proper use of animal models to simulate radiation responses in man and the levels of radiation-induced lenticular opacification that pose risks to man in space.     

Model QA3000 Q-Flex accelerometer high performance test results

Q-Flex quartz flexure suspension technology has evolved to produce a world class accelerometer with thousands of units delivered in 1991. The Sundstrand Model QA3000 Q-Flex design achieves a new level of inertial grade performance while maintaining a competitive market price. The specification for the QA3000, supported by actual performance data, depicts performance characteristics superior in both bias and scale factor. Long term measurements display bias and scale factor repeatability obtained across temperature over a period of three years. These data exhibit improved thermal behavior with reduced errors. Reaction time and radiation data highlight the performance of the hybrid position detector circuit     

Status of the emerging technology of Stirling machines

The commercialization status of Stirling machines varies from established niche market products to potential products that are in early stages of development. In other words, we are talking about a typical emerging technology. Many organizations are actively pursuing product development based on Stirling machine technology. Stirling machines offer significant performance advantages, but many obstacles remain to be fully resolved, including cost and demonstrated reliability. This article describes the technology upon which Stirling machines are based. Several application areas are then explored, including hot air engines, remote power, solar thermal power, sensor cooling, refrigeration, cogeneration and air-independent propulsion     

Numerical investigation on the shock wave transition in a three-dimensional scramjet isolator

The scramjet isolator, which is used to prevent the hypersonic inlet from disturbances that arise from the pressure rise in the scramjet combustor due to the intense turbulent combustion, is one of the most critical components in hypersonic airbreathing propulsion systems. Any engineering error that is possible in the design and manufacturing procedure of the experimental model, and the intense heat release in the scramjet combustor, may cause the performance of the isolator to decrease, leading to its lack of capability in supporting the back pressure. The coupled implicit Reynolds Averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations and the two-equation standard k?ε turbulent model have been employed to numerically simulate the flow fields in a three-dimensional scramjet isolator. The effects of the divergent angle and the back pressure on the shock wave transition and the location of the leading edge of the shock wave train have been estimated and discussed. The obtained results show that the present numerical results are in very good agreement with the available experimental shadow-pictures, and the numerical method is more suitable for capturing the shock wave train and predicting the location of the leading edge of the shock wave train in the scramjet isolator than the present two-dimensional numerical methods. This is due to the small width-to-height ratio of the isolator and the intense three-dimensional flow structures. On increasing the divergent angle of the scramjet isolator, the static pressure along the central symmetrical line of the isolator decreases sharply. This is due to the strong expansion wave generated at the entrance of the isolator, and when the divergent angle of the isolator is sufficiently large, namely 1.5°, a zone of negative pressure is formed just ahead of the leading edge of the shock wave train. At the same time, the shock wave train varies from being oblique to being normal, and then back to oblique. With an increase in the prescribed back pressure at the exit of the scramjet isolator, the leading edge of the shock wave train moves forward towards the entrance of the isolator, and when the back pressure is sufficiently large, unstart conditions in the hypersonic inlet can take place if the shock train reaches the inlet.