DISCOS - ESA''s database and information system characterising objects in space

This paper presents an overview of the main features of ESA's future space debris database DISCOS (Database and Information System Characterising Objects in Space). The DISCOS system has been developed around an ORACLE relational database management software by the University of Kent (UK) under an ESA contract. The DISCOS catalogue will be installed at ESOC, the European Space Operations Centre, and serve as a common ESA information system for the space debris environment.     

Zodiacal light and space observation of faint objects

Zodiacal light is examined as a “foreground noise” limiting the space photometry of faint objects. Emphasis is given to the ways of increasing the signal to noise ratio by an appropriate choice of observational epoch. In the case of the Space Telescope, predictions of average values of this ratio for the extreme faintness case V = 28 are derived from the expected performances announced by NASA and from the recent table of zodiacal brightnesses, as obtained from observations at Tenerife ([1], table 2).     

MCMC-Particle-based group tracking of space objects within Bayesian framework

With the intense increase in space objects, especially space debris, it is necessary to efficiently track and catalog the extensive dense clusters of space objects. As the main instrument for low earth orbit (LEO) space surveillance, ground-based radar system is usually limited by its resolution while tracking small space debris with high density. Thus, the obtained measurement information could have been seriously missed, which makes the traditional tracking method inefficient. To address this issue, we conceived the concept of group tracking. For group tracking, the overall tendency of the group objects is expected to be revealed, and the trajectories of individual objects are simultaneously reconstructed explicitly. According to model the interaction between the group center and individual trajectories using the Markov random field (MRF) within Bayesian framework, the objects’ number and individual trajectory can be estimated more accurately in the condition of high miss alarm probability. The Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC)-Particle algorithm was utilized for solving the Bayesian integral problem. Furthermore, we introduced the mechanism for describing the behaviors of groups merging and splitting, which can expand the single group tracking algorithm to track variable multiple groups. Finally, simulation of the group tracking of space objects was carried out to validate the efficiency of the proposed method.     

Quantitative determination of the outgassing water vapor concentrations surrounding space vehicles from ion mass spectrometer measurements

Outgassing from materials as well as deliberate gaseous and liquid releases create contaminant clouds around spacecraft that can degrade both instrumentation and measurements. This paper describes a new method for estimating outgassing water vapor concentrations around space vehicles. Water vapor ions measured in the course of a rocket experiment performed at Eglin AFB, Florida, on December 12, 1980 at 2311 UT are utilized to demonstrate the technique. The H₂O concentration near the payload's surface is calculated using the rate coefficient for the fast charge transfer process, O⁺ + H₂O + H₂O⁺ + O, the source of the observed water vapor ions. It is found that the measured H₂O⁺ ions were produced within 3–4 cm of the sampling plate's surface and that the average H₂O pressure over this distance was relatively constant on ascent at 8 × 10^?6 torr, within a factor two, implying a steady outgassing rate.     

Disturbance observer based model predictive control for accurate atmospheric entry of spacecraft

Facing the complex aerodynamic environment of Mars atmosphere, a composite atmospheric entry trajectory tracking strategy is investigated in this paper. External disturbances, initial states uncertainties and aerodynamic parameters uncertainties are the main problems. The composite strategy is designed to solve these problems and improve the accuracy of Mars atmospheric entry. This strategy includes a model predictive control for optimized trajectory tracking performance, as well as a disturbance observer based feedforward compensation for external disturbances and uncertainties attenuation. 500-run Monte Carlo simulations show that the proposed composite control scheme achieves more precise Mars atmospheric entry (3.8?km parachute deployment point distribution error) than the baseline control scheme (8.4?km) and integral control scheme (5.8?km).     

Identification of uncatalogued LEO space objects by a ground-based EO array

A ground-based electro-optical (EO) array, deployed at the Jilin Space Tracking Base of Changchun Observatory, China, has been in operation since April 2017. The array has 8 small telescopes, each has an aperture of 15 cm and a field of view of 14° × 14°. On average, the array can collect angles data over 3–4 thousand Very Short Arcs (VSAs) of Low Earth Orbit (LEO) space objects each night. Correlation of the VSA angles data with the NORAD catalogue objects results in about 85% of all the VSAs being correlated to NORAD objects. The remaining 15% VSAs angles data could be supposed from uncatalogued objects. The Initial Orbit Determination (IOD) solutions of the VSAs with the range-search method and the association results of the IODs with the geometrical method are presented. The mean IOD success rate is about 91% and the True Positive (TP) rate is more than 86%. In addition, the classical Gauss, Laplace, Gooding and Double-r angles-only IOD methods are applied to process VSA angles data and their performance is assessed. The CBTA method is used to associate the IOD tracks and compared with the geometrical method. A set of procedures for identifying the uncatalogued objects based on the VSA angles data is designed. Processing of the VSA angles data from Aug 4 to Sep 30, 2017 reveals there are possibly 415 uncatalogued LEO objects.     

Impact of ITRS 2014 realizations on altimeter satellite precise orbit determination

This paper evaluates orbit accuracy and systematic error for altimeter satellite precise orbit determination on TOPEX, Jason-1, Jason-2 and Jason-3 by comparing the use of four SLR/DORIS station complements from the International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS) 2014 realizations with those based on ITRF2008. The new Terrestrial Reference Frame 2014 (TRF2014) station complements include ITRS realizations from the Institut National de l’Information Géographique et Forestière (IGN) ITRF2014, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) JTRF2014, the Deutsche Geodätisches Forschungsinstitut (DGFI) DTRF2014, and the DORIS extension to ITRF2014 for Precise Orbit Determination, DPOD2014. The largest source of error stems from ITRF2008 station position extrapolation past the 2009 solution end time. The TRF2014 SLR/DORIS complement impact on the ITRF2008 orbit is only 1–2 mm RMS radial difference between 1992–2009, and increases after 2009, up to 5 mm RMS radial difference in 2016. Residual analysis shows that station position extrapolation error past the solution span becomes evident even after two years, and will contribute to about 3–4 mm radial orbit error after seven years. Crossover data show the DTRF2014 orbits are the most accurate for the TOPEX and Jason-2 test periods, and the JTRF2014 orbits for the Jason-1 period. However for the 2016 Jason-3 test period only the DPOD2014-based orbits show a strong and statistically significant margin of improvement. The positive results with DTRF2014 suggest the new approach to correct station positions or normal equations for non-tidal loading before combination is beneficial. We did not find any compelling POD advantage in using non-linear over linear station velocity models in our SLR & DORIS orbit tests on the Jason satellites. The JTRF2014 proof-of-concept ITRS realization demonstrates the need for improved SLR+DORIS orbit centering when compared to the Ries (2013) CM annual model. Orbit centering error is seen as an annual radial signal of 0.4 mm amplitude with the CM model. The unmodeled CM signals show roughly a 1.8 mm peak-to-peak annual variation in the orbit radial component. We find the TRF network stability pertinent to POD can be defined only by examination of the orbit-specific tracking network time series. Drift stability between the ITRF2008 and the other TRF2014-based orbits is very high, the relative mean radial drift error over water is no larger than 0.04 mm/year over 1993–2015. Analyses also show TRF induced orbit error meets current altimeter rate accuracy goals for global and regional sea level estimation.     

A study of the material density distribution of space debris

Material density is an important, yet often overlooked, property of orbital debris particles. Many models simply use a typical density to represent all breakup fragments. While adequate for modeling average characteristics in some applications, a single value material density may not be sufficient for reliable impact damage assessments. In an attempt to improve the next-generation NASA Orbital Debris Engineering Model, a study on the material density distribution of the breakup fragments has been conducted and summarized in this paper.     

DPOD2014: A new DORIS extension of ITRF2014 for precise orbit determination

To support precise orbit determination of the altimetry missions, the International DORIS Service (IDS) regularly estimates the DPOD (DORIS terrestrial reference frame for Precise Orbit Determination) solution which includes mean positions and velocities of all the DORIS stations. This solution is aligned to the current realization of the International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) and so, can be seen as a DORIS extension of the ITRF. In 2016, moving to the IDS Combination Center, the DPOD construction scheme changed. The new DPOD solution is produced from a DORIS cumulative position and velocity solution. We present the new methodology used to compute DPOD2014 and its validation procedure. In order to present geophysical applications and interpretations of these results, we show two examples: (1) the Gorkha earthquake (M7.8 – April 2015) generates a 3-D mis-positioning of nearly 55?mm of the EVEB DORIS station at the Everest base camp 90?km from the epicenter. (2) Applying the results the DPOD2014 realization, we show that the most recent vertical velocity of Thule, Greenland is similar to that observed between 2006 and 2010, indicating further ongoing ice mass loss in the Thule region of northwest Greenland.     

Asteroid and comet hazard: Identification problem of observed space objects with the parental bodies

This article focuses on the genetic identification of observed small cosmic bodies with alleged parental bodies; namely, comets, asteroids and meteoroid swarms. There is a problem of the upper D-value limit as a measure of proximity between the orbits of the bodies in the five-dimensional phase space (Southworth and Hawkins, 1963). In the study of genetic relationships of the comet and meteor complexes, the D value is usually taken as equal to 0.2 for all meteor showers. However, the upper D limit should be investigated for each meteoroid complex. For example, such investigation was performed for the Taurid meteor complex (Porub?an et al., 2006). In this paper, the upper D-criterion limit value was investigated for the Perseid meteor shower. The 1862 III Swift–Tuttle comet is its parental comet.     

Enhancing the kinematic precise orbit determination of low earth orbiters using GPS receiver clock modelling

Clock error estimation has been the focus of a great deal of research because of the extensive usage of clocks in GPS positioning applications. The receiver clock error in the spacecraft orbit determination is commonly estimated on an epoch-by-epoch basis, along with the spacecraft’s position. However, due to the high correlation between the spacecraft orbit altitude and the receiver clock parameters, estimates of the radial component are degraded in the kinematic approach. Using clocks with high stability, the predictable behaviour of the receiver oscillator can be exploited to improve the positioning accuracy, especially for the radial component. This paper introduces two GPS receiver clock models to describe the deterministic and stochastic property of the receiver clock, both of which can improve the accuracy of kinematic orbit determination for spacecraft in low earth orbit. In particular, the clock parameters are estimated as time offset and frequency offset in the two-state model. The frequency drift is also estimated as an unknown parameter in the three-state model. Additionally, residual non-deterministic random errors such as frequency white noise, frequency random walk noise and frequency random run noise are modelled. Test results indicate that the positioning accuracy could be improved significantly using one day of GRACE flight data. In particular, the error of the radial component was reduced by over 40.0% in the real-time scenario.     

Evolution of coronal mass ejection/shock system in interplanetary space

The evolution of coronal mass ejection/shock system is investigated by numerically solving the usual set of two-dimensional single-fluid polytropic magnetohydrodynamic equations from 1 R_s to 1 AU in the meridian plane. The simulation result reveals that the coronal mass ejection/shock system formed near the sun evolves into the magnetic cloud/shock system near the earth’s orbit through the following three phases: the initial formation, the dominant latitudinal expansion and the similar expansion.     

Early analysis of precise orbit and clock offset determination for the satellites of the global BeiDou-3 system

Eight new-generation BeiDou satellites (BeiDou-3) have been launched into Medium Earth Orbit (MEO), allowing for global coverage since March 2018, and they are equipped with new hydrogen atomic clocks and updated rubidium clocks. Firstly, we analyzed the signals for the carrier-to-noise-density ratio (C/N0) and pseudorange multipath (MP) by using international GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) Monitoring and Assessment System (iGMAS) station data, and found that B1C has a lower C/N0, and B2a has the same level of C/N0 as the B1I and B3I signals. For pseudorange multipath, compared with the BeiDou-2 satellites, the obvious systematic variation of MP scatters related to the elevation angle is greatly improved for the BeiDou-3 and BeiDou-3e satellites signals. For the signals of the BeiDou-3 satellites, the order of the Root Mean Square (RMS) values of multipath and noise is B3I?<?B1I?<?B2a?<?B1C. Then, the comparison of the precise orbit determination and clock offset determination for the BeiDou-2, BeiDou-3, and BeiDou-3 experimental (BeiDou-3e) satellites was done by using 10 stations from iGMAS. The 3D precision of the 24?h orbit overlap is 24.55, 25.61, and 23.35?cm for the BeiDou-3, BeiDou-3e, and BeiDou-2 satellites, respectively. BeiDou-3 satellite has a comparable precision to that of the BeiDou-2 satellite. For the precision of clock offset estimation, the Standard Deviation (STD) of the BeiDou-3 MEO satellite is 0.350?ns, which is an improvement of 0.042?ns over that of the BeiDou-2 MEO satellite. The stabilities of the BeiDou-3 and BeiDou-3e onboard clocks are better than those of BeiDou-2 by factors of 2.84 and 1.61 at an averaging time of 1000 and 10,000?s, respectively.     

Reanalysis of radiation belt electron phase space density using various boundary conditions and loss models

Data assimilation is becoming an increasingly important tool for understanding the near Earth hazardous radiation environments. Reanalysis of the radiation belts can be used to identify the electron acceleration mechanism and distinguish local acceleration from radial diffusion. However, for any practical applications we need to determine how reliable is reanalysis, and how significant is the dependence of the results on the assumptions of the code and choice of boundary conditions. We present the sensitivity of reanalysis of the radiation belt electron phase space density (PSD) to the assumed location of the outer boundary, using the VERB code and a Kalman filter. We analyze the sensitivity of reanalysis to changes in the electron-loss throughout the domain, and the sensitivity to the assumed boundary condition and its effect on the innovation vector. All the simulations presented in this study for all assumed loss models and boundary conditions, show that peaks in the phase space density of relativistic electrons build up between 4.5 and 6 R_E during relativistic electron flux enhancements in the outer radiation belt. This clearly shows that peaks build up in the heart of the electron radiation belt independent of the assumptions in the model, and that local acceleration is operating there. The work here is also an important step toward performing reanalysis using observations from current and future missions.     

Using parallel computing for the display and simulation of the space debris environment

Parallelism is becoming the leading paradigm in today’s computer architectures. In order to take full advantage of this development, new algorithms have to be specifically designed for parallel execution while many old ones have to be upgraded accordingly. One field in which parallel computing has been firmly established for many years is computer graphics. Calculating and displaying three-dimensional computer generated imagery in real time requires complex numerical operations to be performed at high speed on a large number of objects. Since most of these objects can be processed independently, parallel computing is applicable in this field. Modern graphics processing units (GPUs) have become capable of performing millions of matrix and vector operations per second on multiple objects simultaneously.     

Influence of proprioceptive information on space orientation on the ground and in orbital weightlessness.

Conscious space orientation depends on afferent information from different sense organs including the labyrinth, the eyes, tactile cues from the skin, joint receptors, muscle spindles, tendon organs and possibly viscera. An important role is played by impulses from the cervical position receptors in interaction with concomitant information from the otolith system. In order to isolate the effect of cervical position receptors from that of the otolith system, space experiments in orbital weightlessness and in parabolic aircraft flight were performed. It was found that stimulation of the neck receptors in weightlessness markedly influences the perception of the subjective vertical and horizontal and in addition has a weak effect on ocular torsion.     

Approaches in the determination of plant nutrient uptake and distribution in space flight conditions.

The effective growth and development of vascular plants rely on the adequate availability of water and nutrients. Inefficiency in either the initial absorption, transportation, or distribution of these elements are factors which impinge on plant structure and metabolic integrity. The potential effect of space flight and microgravity conditions on the efficiency of these processes is unclear. Limitations in the available quantity of space-grown plant material and the sensitivity of routine analytical techniques have made an evaluation of these processes impractical. However, the recent introduction of new plant cultivating methodologies supporting the application of radionuclide elements and subsequent autoradiography techniques provides a highly sensitive investigative approach amenable to space flight studies. Experiments involving the use of gel based 'nutrient packs' and the radionuclides calcium-45 and iron-59 were conducted on the Shuttle mission STS-94. Uptake rates of the radionuclides between ground and flight plant material appeared comparable.     

Metropolitan expansion and population density patterns in third world supercities as indicated by integration of space and ground data

Monitoring of the urbanization process in the less developed countries of the world is limited by the inadequacy of ground data such as censuses and by their explosive rates of population growth and spatial expansion. By integrating Landsat satellite imagery and available population data, more accurate analyses are possible than by using either medium alone. Using this technique, built-up area, population and patterns of population density for the year 1978 are quantified for six Third World supercities with population in excess of six million: Calcutta, Shanghai, Cairo, Mexico City, Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. Significant differences in density patterns between these cities appear to be related to economic level and culture.