Advances in critical technologies for hypersonic and high-enthalpy wind tunnel

Hypersonic and high-enthalpy wind tunnels and their measurement techniques are the cornerstone of the hypersonic flight era that is a dream for human beings to fly faster, higher and further. The great progress has been achieved during the recent years and their critical technologies are still in an urgent need for further development. There are at least four kinds of hypersonic and high-enthalpy wind tunnels that are widely applied over the world and can be classified according to their operation modes. These wind tunnels are named as air-directly-heated hypersonic wind tunnel, light-gas-heated shock tunnel, free-piston-driven shock tunnel and detonation-driven shock tunnel, respectively. The critical technologies for developing the wind tunnels are introduced in this paper, and their merits and weakness are discussed based on wind tunnel performance evaluation. Measurement techniques especially developed for high-enthalpy flows are a part of the hypersonic wind tunnel technology because the flow is a chemically reacting gas motion and its diagnosis needs specially designed instruments. Three kinds of the measurement techniques considered to be of primary importance are introduced here, including the heat flux sensor, the aerodynamic balance, and optical diagnosis techniques. The techniques are developed usually for conventional wind tunnels, but further improved for hypersonic and high-enthalpy tunnels. The hypersonic ground test facilities have provided us with most of valuable experimental data on high-enthalpy flows and will play a more important role in hypersonic research area in the future. Therefore, several prospects for developing hypersonic and high-enthalpy wind tunnels are presented from our point of view.     

激波风洞高超声速摩阻直接测量技术研究

介绍了在中国空气动力研究与发展中心（CARDC）激波风洞中进行的摩阻测量技术研究情况。在测量研究中,设计了压电型摩阻天平,为了提高摩阻天平的校准和风洞试验测量结果精度,便于风洞试验和校准之间安装的变换,本项研究的摩阻天平采用一种新结构,也就是测量表面和摩阻天平本体可以分离的分体式结构,由此确保在不同使用场合下,摩阻天平的测量表面或者校准加载块可拆卸和更换。验证性试验是在CARDC0．6m激波风洞中进行的,流场名义马赫数分别为8和10,单位雷诺数分别为2．85×10^7／m和1．58×10^7／m,试验中测量了带压缩拐角的进气道模型表面三个测点的摩擦阻力,也测量了摩阻测点及其附近热流,测量结果表明：模型表面的摩阻和热流与雷诺比拟准则符合得较好。     

激波风洞重模型气动力试验研究

在激波风洞上进行气动力试验时,风洞启动时巨大的冲击载荷使模型-天平受到充分的激励,从而形成惯性干扰力,并与真实气动力混杂在一起,甚至完全覆盖气动力,降低了试验精准度,使得试验模型的质量受到极大的限制。本文介绍了CARDC-dia.2米激波风洞进行大、重模型的压电天平气动力试验研究情况,包括天平设计、天平校准、惯性补偿和风洞试验等几个方面。研究结果表明:气动力试验模型质量可从过去的500g增加到8kg,模型长度可达1m。从而提高了激波风洞测力试验能力,能满足高超声速飞行器试验的需求。     

无人机气动力地面车载测试系统

介绍了中国航天空气动力技术研究院开发的一种用于测量全尺寸无人机气动力的地面车载测试系统（GTV）。车载测试系统采用一辆中型卡车进行相关改造,将试验无人机机身安装在其顶部,通过汽车牵引能够达到40km/h的速度。一套专用的测试天平系统和数据采集系统用于记录试验中无人机产生的升力、阻力以及俯仰力矩等数据。主要介绍测试天平系统的设计,数据采集测试系统,测试方法和试验结果。多元静态原位校准加载结果表明天平测试系统输出信号线性度以及重复性较好。动态校准试验采用一副定常展弦比6的机翼进行,试验结果与已知的风洞试验数据进行了比对。车载测试系统试验结果的升力和俯仰力矩数据不同车次之间重复性较好,并且与风洞试验数据基本一致。但阻力数据的离散度要比风洞试验时大得多,并且试验结果比风洞试验时偏小一些,试验证明地面车载测试系统的阻力测量难度较大。     

适用于超声速的一种通量限制型紧致格式

紧致格式因其结构简单、在相同的网格点上能达到比非紧致格式更高的精度以及与谱方法相近的分辨率等优点,日益受到人们的重视。用紧致格式模拟超声速流场的主要问题之一是如何保证高阶紧致格式能光滑地捕捉到流场的各种间断。本文借鉴NND格式的思想,构造出一种总体上具有三阶精度的通量限制型紧致(LFC)格式,并成功地应用于含有激波、滑移面等复杂流动现象的数值模拟。计算结果表明这种格式不仅具有较高的精度和分辨率,而且还保证了在间断附近基本无虚假波动。     

基于二维紧凑型四阶格子模型的激波管流动模拟

为了提高格子的稳定性,使用Hermite展开方法,构建了新的二维四阶紧凑型格子模型,即D2Q37A。比较了D2Q37A和与Philippi给出的紧凑型格子模型(D2Q37B)的稳定性。在相同的碰撞频率下,与D2Q37B相比,D2Q37A可以模拟初始密度比更高的一维激波管流动。这表明D2Q37A与现有格子模型相比,具有更好的稳定性。详细给出了适用于高阶格子模型的边界条件实现方式。此边界条件实现方式保留了体现LBM（lattice Boltmann method）粒子特性的迁移 碰撞机制。用以上给出的格子模型和边界条件处理方式模拟激波管流动,得到的模拟结果和解析解吻合得很好。这表明所给出的边界处理方式是可行的。此边界格式同样可以用于其他类型的流动和边界。      

碳氢燃料超声速燃烧研究的新方法

提出了一种采用激波风洞、激波管组合设备开展碳氢燃料超声速燃烧研究的实验方法。初步实验结果证实方法切实可行。利用激波预热燃料并采用高温燃气流作为引导火焰可以将碳氢燃料的点火延迟缩短，火焰传播速度加快，有效解决了碳氢燃料点火延迟过长的问题。     

FD09风洞旋转天平试验系统研制

为了分析和预测飞机的尾旋特性,一般通过旋转天平风洞试验测定飞机模型在不同姿态角时绕风轴以不同旋转速率作等速旋转状态下的气动特性。针对上述情况,研制FD09低速风洞旋转天平试验系统,介绍该旋转天平试验系统的设计特点、性能指标,并进行SDM标模和战斗机模型对比验证。结果表明:本试验系统工作稳定可靠,试验结果与参考曲线有较好的重复性,并且本试验系统试验曲线的光滑性要更好一些,同时本试验系统给出的试验数据精度较高,可以用于开展型号试验及相关空气动力学研究。     

Steady, pseudo-steady and unsteady shock wave reflections

The reflection of oblique shock waves has been the subject of numerous experimental, analytical and numerical studies in the past five decades. In the past six years three reviews have been published on various aspects of shock wave phenomena by Griffith (1981), Bazhenova et al. (1984) and Hornung (1985). However, these reviews were not devoted completely to shock wave reflection phenomena and as such they are more limited in scope than the present review. Furthermore, the developments since these reviews were written suggested a need for an up-to-date comprehensive review. The present review is aimed at describing in detail the entire shock wave reflection phenomenon from a phenomenological point of view. It is divided into three parts. The first is dedicated to the reflection in pseudo-steady flows, e.g., shock tube experiments over straight wedges, the second concentrates on steady flows, e.g., wind tunnel experiments, and the third describes the phenomenon in truly unsteady flows, e.g., shock tube experiment over non-straight wedges, spherical blast wave reflections, etc. In each of these flow patterns, unsolved problems are discussed and future research needs are identified. In order to keep this review within an acceptable size it was decided not to include details of numerical studies. Whenever possible the nomenclature is the one suggested by Ben-Dor and Dewey (1985).     

民机跨音速实验洞壁干扰修正方法

该洞壁干扰修正方法以实测的洞壁附近的压力分布作为边界条件;要求来流和洞壁附近的Ｍａｃｈ数都小于１;但允许模型附近出现局部超音速区和激波。它适用于各种透气壁或实壁实验段。应用该方法对国外三个模型的实验数据进行了洞壁干扰修正计算,修正结果与ＮＡＳＡ非线性洞壁干扰修正方法的结果十分接近或完全吻合。该方法已用于Ｂ７３７模型在１．２ｍ风洞中实验数据的洞壁干扰修正,其结果显示该方法适用于大展弦比飞机的跨音速风洞实验数据修正。     

捕捉间断的高精度数值方法

为发展适用于捕捉超声速流场中各种间断的高精度算法,将通量限制的思想引入到紧致格式中,构造了一个传统方法与紧致格式混合组成的通量限制型差分格式.通过在时间方向上利用一阶精度格式计算的一维定常激波,以及在时间方向采用多步Runge-Kutta方法计算的一维非定常激波管问题上的数值试验与二阶精度的TVD格式所计算的结果比较,表明新方法比二阶精度方法在间断的捕捉上具有明显的优势.通过新方法的计算结果与精确解的比较,表明新方法的准度也是非常令人满意的.     

Experimental investigation on aero-heating of rudder shaft within laminar/turbulent hypersonic boundary layers

The aero-heating of the rudder shaft region of a hypersonic vehicle is very harsh, as the peak heat flux in this region can be even higher than that at the stagnation point. Therefore, studying the aero-heating of the rudder shaft is of great significance for designing the thermal protection system of the hypersonic vehicle. In the wind tunnel test of the aero-heating effect, we find that with the increase of the angle of attack of the lifting body model, the increasement of the heat flux of the rudder shaft is larger under laminar flow conditions than that under turbulent flow conditions. To understand this, we design a wind tunnel experiment to study the effect of laminar/turbulent hypersonic boundary layers on the heat flux of the rudder shaft under the same wind tunnel freestream conditions. The experiment is carried out in the ?2 m shock tunnel(FD-14 A) affiliated to the China Aerodynamics Research and Development Center(CARDC). The laminar boundary layer on the model is triggered to a turbulent one by using vortex generators, which are 2 mm-high diamonds. The aero-heating of the rudder shaft(with the rudder) and the protuberance(without the rudder) are studied in both hypersonic laminar and turbulent boundary layers under the same freestream condition. The nominal Mach numbers are 10 and 12, and the unit Reynolds numbers are2.4 × 10~6 m~(-1) and 2.1 × 10~6 m-1. The angle of attack of the model is 20°, and the deflection angle of the rudder and the protuberance is 10°. The heat flux on the model surface is measured by thin film heat flux sensors, and the heat flux distribution along the center line of the lifting body model suggests that forced transition is achieved in the upstream of the rudder. The test results of the rudder shaft and the protuberance show that the heat flux of the rudder shaft is lower in the turbulent flow than that in the laminar flow, but the heat flux of the protuberance is the other way around,i.e., lower in the laminar flow than in the turbulent flow. The wind tunnel test results is also validated by numerical simulations. Our analysis suggests that this phenomenon is due to the difference of boundary layer velocities caused by different thickness of boundary layer between laminar and turbulent flows, as well as the restricted flow within the rudder gap. When the turbulent boundary layer is more than three times thicker than that of the laminar boundary layer, the heat flux of the rudder shaft under the laminar flow condition is higher than that under the turbulent flow condition. Discovery of this phenomenon has great importance for guiding the design of the thermal protection system for the rudder shaft of hypersonic vehicles.     

Theories of magnetospheres around accreting compact objects

A wide class of galactic X-ray sources are believed to be binary systems where mass is flowing from a normal star to a companion that is a compact object, such as a neutron star. The strong magnetic fields of the compact object create a magnetosphere around it. We review the theoretical models developed to describe the properties of magnetospheres in such accreting binary systems. The size of the magnetosphere can be estimated from pressure balance arguments and is found to be small compared to the over-all size of the accretion region but large compared to the compact object if the latter is a neutron star. In the early models the magnetosphere was assumed to have open funnels in the polar regions, through which accreting plasma could pour in. Later, magnetically closed models were developed, with plasma entry made possible by instabilities at the magnetosphere boundary. The theory of plasma flow inside the magnetosphere has been formulated in analogy to a stellar wind with reversed flow; a complicating factor is the instability of the Alfvén critical point for inflow. In the case of accretion via a well-defined disk, new problems of magnetospheric structure appear, in particular the question to what extent and by what process the magnetic fields from the compact object can penetrate into the accretion disk. Since the X-ray emission is powered by the gravitational energy released in the accretion process, mass transfer into the magnetosphere is of fundamental importance; the various proposed mechanisms are critically examined.Proceedings of the NASA/JPL Workshop on the Physics of Planetary and Astrophysical Magnetospheres.     

风洞天平地轴校正的修正方法

针对风洞天平体轴校正与地轴校正之间的差别 ,建立了一种修正方法。该方法根据加载后的变形测量将地轴校正的载荷修正为体轴系的载荷 ,以得到体轴系天平公式。为用地轴校正台获得体轴校正结果开辟了一条新途径。对比结果表明该修正方法是行之有效的。     

利用翼尖减阻装置提高碟形飞行器性能

碟型飞行器采用了新颖的翼身融合气动布局.与常规飞行器相比,这种外形通过机身和机翼完全融合消除了机身阻力,且具有结构简单、容载大等许多优点,但由于其展弦比小而导致诱导阻力较大.本文通过风洞吹风试验,找到一种后掠鱼鳍形的翼尖小翼装置能很好地减小其诱导阻力.对模型安装翼尖小翼后,风洞测量其最大升阻比在30 m/s风速下提高了75%,在50 m/s风速下可达到15.为进一步考察安装翼尖装置后的飞行器低速气动性能,对其进行了模型试飞研究.试飞验证了风洞吹风结果,不仅提高了载重量而且使横侧飞行稳定性增强.     

高焓激波风洞有效试验时间的诊断

高焓激波风洞能够产生模拟高马赫数飞行条件的气流总温,是研究高温真实气体效应以及再入物理问题的有效试验装备,但是激波风洞的试验时间较短,且随着气流焓值的提高大幅降低,仅为几毫秒,因此试验测试数据曲线中有效时间段的分辨十分重要,它直接影响到试验结果的可靠性及精度。鉴于此,采用压力测量、静电探针测量、非接触光学测量和热流测量的方式,针对中国科学院力学研究所JF-10高焓激波风洞16 MJ/kg总焓、7700 K总温的流场状态,对比研究了风洞喷管的起动时间以及有效测试时间。试验结果表明:静电探针测量方法最为有效地分辨了喷管起动时间段、有效试验时间段以及驱动气体的到达; JF-10高焓风洞在16 MJ/kg的状态下,喷管起动时间约为1.3 ms,风洞有效试验时间约为2 ms。     

一种形状可控的激波增强管道型线设计新方法

激波管所产生的非定常运动激波,若强度和形状能够按照一定的设计要求进行可控条件下的调节,将可望为燃料点火燃烧试验等提供具有独到优势的研究手段。基于激波动力学理论,针对激波管中所产生的平面运动激波,通过设计特定的上下壁面收缩型线,使初始平面运动激波,经收缩段（包括光滑凹形曲线段、斜直线段和光滑凸形曲线段）的变形和强度增加,再以平面波面形状进入较小截面直管段的连续转变过渡,得到了强度增加的平面激波。进一步对所设计的典型型线分别采用数值计算和试验的方法,考核分析激波运动过程中的形状变化,验证了理论方法的可靠性。在此基础上,分析了型线设计的关键参数对激波增强幅度的影响,结果表明,相对于传统激波管方法,本文中所提出的收缩截面方法能更显著地增加平面激波强度;另外,还考察了初始入射激波马赫数对壁面型线和运动激波波面形状的影响,结果表明,对于较强的初始入射激波来说,壁面型线对入射激波强度依赖较小,也就是说,当实际入射激波马赫数即使稍偏离设计状态时,仍然能得到近乎完美的平面形状增强激波。     

激波风洞气动力试验不确定度影响因素分析

参考北大西洋公约组织和AIAA推荐的风洞试验数据不确定度计算方法,结合激波风洞运行特点,确定激波风洞气动力试验的主要误差源,计算激波风洞13-2标模气动力测量结果的不确定度。采用改变单一变量的方法计算主要误差源对测量结果不确定度的影响程度,辨析对不确定度起主要作用的基本参数。计算结果表明：皮托压力和总压的测量结果对流场参数影响显著,皮托压力的测量结果比总压测量结果对流场参数与气动力测量结果影响更大;降低皮托压力和总压的偏离极限,有利于提高激波风洞气动力试验数据的质量。     

直连式脉冲燃烧风洞起动过程研究

直连式脉冲燃烧风洞的起动过程是一个非常复杂的瞬态过程,采用光电测量系统和数值方法对其进行探索性研究。试验中,光电探测系统在非常短的传输距离上测出了高速起动激波的速度。通过与试验结果对比,验证了所采用的数值方法的可行性。研究表明：起动激波往下游的运动过程具有一定的规律性;由于内型面的变化导致起动激波速度在起动过程中发生变化。     

单模块超燃发动机推力测量天平研制

介绍了用于单模块超燃发动机推力测量的力传感器单分量天平的研制、应用,通过脉冲燃烧风洞和长时间风洞试验,天平/模型/支撑系统频率为20 Hz,在脉冲燃烧风洞有效试验时间内(约300 ms)可获得较为稳定的测力信号,基本满足脉冲燃烧风洞单模块发动机测力要求.在相同试验条件下,脉冲燃烧风洞和长时间风洞获得了相同的发动机推力收益,验证了天平测量数据的准确性.