International cooperation in remote sensing for global change research: political and economic considerations

Activities concerning international cooperation in space-based remote sensing for global change research have for the most part focused on technical/functional aspects such as data harmonization, research project coordination, and sensor selection and deployment. Until fairly recently, little attention has been directed towards the various political and economic constraints which may act as ‘stumbling blocks’. A review of the contemporary international remote sensing milieu as it relates to the global change research agenda is presented. Several important political and economic conditions affecting this area are identified: (1) data access and pricing policies; (2) national security concerns; (3) developed/developing nation relations; and (4) inconsistent political/financial commitments. A set of recommendations is offered to enhance international cooperation in the use of space-based remote sensing data for global change research.     

Remote sensing in the information age

A large percentage of the public today perceives the majority of applications of Earth observation data from satellite and aircraft altitudes to be focused on the understanding and management of the renewable and non-renewable resources of the Earth and its environment. Originally conceived as a tool for gathering intelligence information, remote sensing has just fully emerged from its military womb to the public domain. Advances in the technology, a variety of indirect benefits that could be derived from space exploration, commercialization of remote sensing and the drive of the value-added companies - all of these hold promise for new opportunities for many other novel applications of Earth observation data and related information. In the advent of the more advanced, user-friendly, cost effective, and problem solving operations being championed by the private sector, particularly in the industrialized countries, it appears that the commercial future for remote sensing programmes and related information generated in the process is promising. This paper examines how the information age is influencing the metamorphosis of remote sensing technology particularly through international legal instruments and converging technologies. In spite of the progress attained to-date, of international concern is possible radio frequency interference between remote sensing satellite and communication satellite services. There is also a major knowledge gap between the providers of raw remote sensing data and the user community, particularly those interested in the new high-level information. A resolution of these issues will enhance the contributions of remote sensing to the information economy.     

Remote sensing of Earth resources: emerging opportunities for developing countries

Land information from remote sensing satellites contributes substantially to the quality of decision making in development activities. However, participation in space-related activities by developing countries has historically been low in part due to the high costs and advanced technology inputs required. The paper discusses several technological and socio-political trends which now offer increasingly affordable opportunities for developing countries to increase their level of participation in activities related to satellite remote sensing of earth resources. Benefiting from these opportunities requires appropriate encouragement and support from national governments.     

The land remote sensing commercialization Act of 1984

This article examines the effect that private-sector remote sensing activities might have on the international community and on the future of international cooperation in space. It describes in detail The Land Remote Sensing Commercialization Act of 1984, recently passed by the US Congress and signed by President Reagan. The article concludes that it is possible to develop domestic regulations that balance the economic interests of the private sector with the legal and political concerns of the international community.     

An international remote sensing system: A possibility

There have been growing national capabilities in the observation of Earth from space and a corresponding increase in the global awareness of environmental problems. In response, within the past decade consensus has been reached with respect to the recommendations of Unispace-82, the Principles of Remote Sensing and Agenda 21 of the June 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED); the latter was convened ‘to lay the foundation for a global partnership between developing and more industrialized countries, based on mutual needs and common interests, to ensure the future of the planet’. Similarly, the framework for international cooperation in such programmes as the US-led Earth Observing system (EOS) and the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) have been established. An international remote sensing system that is user-driven may be the next logical step.     

The use of remote sensing satellites for verification in international law

This paper examines the use of remote sensing satellites for verification in public international law. Verification always depends on the specific agreement or mission to be verified. There are no general framework rules: the means of verification and the verifying authorities vary from agreement to agreement and from mission to mission. Rapid technological development and the intensifying international cooperation have led to an increasing number of international verification missions. Whereas, in the past, verification was at the heart of intelligence and national services, the commercialization of the remote sensing industry and the information revolution have supported the creation of joint initiatives in this field. Traditionally, verification is associated with disarmament and arms control treaties, but the paper will underline that this is only one field of application for verification missions. It is important to note that there is no binding international regime specifically addressing such activity. The lack of legal certainty in this field also applies to the use of remotely sensed data as evidence in legal proceedings.     

Rethinking national and global security: The role of space-based observations

In 1955 US President Eisenhower made his Open Skies proposal to the USSR, suggesting an exchange of blueprints showing the location of military installations in the two countries. The proposal was rejected at the time, but today the proliferation of remote sensing technology, along with interrelated security concerns, suggests that the time has come to rethink and update the concept. In this paper the author explains his recent proposal to the US Congress that a national commission be established to explore how information gathered by civilian remote sensing satellites could increase international security and stability without jeopardizing national defence.     

UN principles on remote sensing an agreement on economic relations

The agreement on remote sensing principles adopted by the UN General Assembly in late 1986 clarified the legal framework in the international environment. Investment decisions can now be made, and the agreement thus offers an important opportunity for commercial remote sensing. Several issues are still not settled, but there is time for governments to avoid political conflict which could affect international business relations. The creation of Intelsat and Inmarsat offers a model for international cooperation in remote sensing.     

中国空间站光学遥感载荷的发展研究

光学遥感载荷的空间站平台相比卫星平台具有很大的优势,吸引了包括俄罗斯、美国和欧空局在内的国际空间站成员国争相进行空间站光学遥感载荷的新技术实验验证和对地观测研究。文章介绍了国际空间站光学遥感载荷的观测方式和特点,结合国际空间站光学遥感载荷的应用情况,从新技术实验验证和对地观测两个方面分析了中国空间站光学遥感载荷发展应该注意的问题,为中国空间站光学遥感载荷的发展提出了几点建议。     

Paxsat and progress in arms control : Canadian research focuses on remote sensing applications

Verification of arms control treaties is essential to provide adequate international confidence in treaty compliance. This Viewpoint underlines the responsibility of non-superpower countries to become more closely involved in space surveillance of treaties to which they are parties. In Canada, Paxsat research has focused on two potential applications of space-based remote sensing to multi-lateral arms control verification. The necessary technology is readily available in non-superpower countries for the Paxsat concept to be put into operation.     

Space technology in developing nations: an assessment

Space technology can make an immense contribution to solving the problems of the world as a whole, and the developing nations in particular. This report summarizes the use of satellites by developing countries in the fields of communications, remote sensing, disaster management and space science. India and China, in particular, have built up impressive capabilities in several of these areas, but the great majority of developing countries still do not have access to this technology. The author addresses a number of proposals to the international community for bringing the satellite revolution to the developing world.     

新一代无源微波遥感器及其在地球同步卫星上的应用研究

星载无源微波遥感已发展成为观测大气与地球表面的重要手段，地球同步气象卫星上使用的微波遥感仪器必须是新一代先进的遥感器；它应兼备传统的无源微波大气探测仪及微波成像仪的双重功能。本文叙述了国际上新一代星载无源微波遥感器的研究现状和发展趋势，讨论了在地球同步气象卫星上装载无源微波遥感仪器的可行性及其关键技术，并研究了其频率的选择问题。     

Expanding global access to civilian and commercial remote sensing data: implications and policy issues

Current and planned developments in the field of civilian and commercial satellite imagery promise a major expansion in international accessibility to remote sensing data and technologies. This paper addresses the implications of the expanding global access to land remote sensing data and their derived products. While atmospheric, meteorological, and oceanographic data is also widely available at cost or free of charge, it is land remote sensing - specifically the unique systems with high-resolution and frequent revisit times - that are of primary concern for international and regional security issues. Military and intelligence satellites are not addressed in this discussion of expansion due to their inherently controlled access, unless such systems also provide commercially available imagery or products (as is the case with some Russian systems).     

Partnerships in remote sensing : A theme with some examples

This article reviews the revolution in remote sensing which has taken place over the past 25 years. This revolution could not have occurred without the closest cooperation among government agencies, industry and academia. International cooperation is shown to be essential in carrying out the bold missions planned for the next decade. The article reviews the history of the NASA-NOAA relationship, and the history of international partnerships with emphasis on development of the operational METSAT system. The government-industry partnership is also reviewed, with case studies to examine the evolution of METSAT sensor design, LANDSAT commercialization, and the NOAA Administrator's new initiative to facilitate development of a commercial Ocean Color Instrument. Government interaction with academia, in the form of National Science Foundation programmes and government-university ‘cooperative institutes’, is reviewed. The author concludes by showing how plans for integrating research and operations on Space Station platforms can only succeed through an alliance of all the remote-sensing players.     

Remote sensing of natural resources : Legal and political considerations for the Third World

A state's posture on remote sensing of the Earth by orbiting satellites varies depending upon whether it is a ‘sensing’ or a ‘sensed’ state, upon its present economic status, and upon its economic and political history. This article considers the international legal questions related to remote sensing and discusses the political aspects with special emphasis upon the views of the Third World. The author concludes that, unless Third World states and others who support them alter their views somewhat, it is probable that remote sensing of natural resources will continue without specific legal guidelines.     

The use of remote sensing to support the application of multilateral environmental agreements

There is a growing realisation of the increasingly varied and interesting possibilities for the use of Earth observation data to ensure compliance with international obligations generally, and treaty obligations in particular. Most examinations of the application of Earth observation data to monitoring states’ compliance with international obligations focus on the environmental sector. This paper proposes the use of remote sensing satellites for the support of multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs), especially land monitoring MEAs such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) and the Kyoto Protocol (1997). It discusses the uses of remote sensing for treaty implementation or enforcement in general, and the admissability of satellite imagery as legal proof, before examining how Earth observation-derived data could be of benefit to specific MEAs. As sensors become increasingly sophisticated the use of remote sensing in this area should grow but it needs to be supported by its more widespread legal recognition as proof.     

Basic space science and developing countries

Basic science — including space science — is vital for national development, but developing countries often meet obstacles to participation in the international scientific community. This can be mitigated by international cooperation, particularly in the field of education. The author calls for a concerted effort to increase such cooperation regionally, internationally and bilaterally; international organizations should also become involved. Various forms of cooperation are suggested and UN efforts in the promotion of basic space science are described.     

Security implications of remote sensing

Major technical advances in remote sensing have developed sophisticated systems with both extensive military and civilian applications. Not only the USA and USSR, but a growing number of other countries such as China, France, India and Japan are actively engaged in remote-sensing R&D. This article reviews the capabilities of civilian satellite technologies and programmes of various nations, and examines the implications for national and international security. Many states are concerned about the commercial availability of data on their economic resources and national security-related activities. A particular problem is the possible misinterpretation of remotely-sensed data.     

Expanding global access to civilian and commercial remote sensing data: implications and policy issues

Current and planned developments in the field of civilian and commercial² satellite imagery promise a major expansion in international accessibility to remote sensing data and technologies. This paper addresses the implications of the expanding global access to land remote sensing data and their derived products. While atmospheric, meteorological, and oceanographic data is also widely available at cost or free of charge, it is land remote sensing – specifically the unique systems with high-resolution and frequent revisit times – that are of primary concern for international and regional security issues. Military and intelligence satellites are not addressed in this discussion of expansion due to their inherently controlled access, unless such systems also provide commercially available imagery or products (as is the case with some Russian systems).     

Information Service System for Receiving and Processing Multi Source Remote Sensing Images

Based on international requirements for the application of commercial remote sensing data,an information service system for receiving and processing multi source remote sensing data was developed and introduced.The system consists of an Oversea Fixed Ground Service Station(OFGS),a Transportable Vessel-Borne Service Station(TVBS) and a Data Operation and Management Center(DOMC).Fixed and transportable service stations were developed in Venezuela,Latin America and for the China's Xuelong polar research vessel respectively,and serve the function of remote sensing data receiving,processing and application.The DOMC connects the OFGS and TVBS,so that they constitute a network to provide receiving,distribution,retrieval,browsing,ordering,and downloading functions for multi remote sensing satellite data and products.It validates the competence in providing 40 kinds of typical application products.The development of this system provides a reliable and comprehensive service for commercial remote sensing data applications for users both in domestic and oversea markets.