Space technology in developing nations: an assessment

Space technology can make an immense contribution to solving the problems of the world as a whole, and the developing nations in particular. This report summarizes the use of satellites by developing countries in the fields of communications, remote sensing, disaster management and space science. India and China, in particular, have built up impressive capabilities in several of these areas, but the great majority of developing countries still do not have access to this technology. The author addresses a number of proposals to the international community for bringing the satellite revolution to the developing world.     

Aiding astronomy in developing nations: Japanese ODA

In order to promote education and research in developing nations, the Government of Japan has been providing developing nations with high-grade equipment under the framework of the Official Development Assistance (ODA) cooperation programme since 1982. Under this successful cooperation programme, 24 astronomical instruments have been donated to 19 developing nations up to the end of the Japanese fiscal year 2003. The instruments donated included university-level reflecting telescopes, as well as modern planetaria used for educational purposes, together with various accessories. This paper reports on a continuation of the previous ODA donations and the subsequent follow-up programmes provided with the assistance of the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and the cooperation with the Programme on Space Applications of the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (OOSA). It also describes how aid applications should be pursued.     

Korea''s space development programme: Policy and law

Korea now has a rapidly expanding space programme with exploration aspirations. The government is giving priority to the aerospace industry and, to put it on a better footing, recently enacted a New Space Exploitation Promotion Act. The early history and current and future development of Korea's space activities are briefly described in advance of a comprehensive presentation of the contents of the Act, including launch licensing, liability, registration of space objects, use of satellite information, astronaut rescue, third party liability insurance and establishment of institutions and plans to assist the Korean space effort. A call is made for Asian countries to unite and further their space development through a regional space agency.     

国际外层空间法和国内外层空间法的关系

国际外层空间法是国际法的一个新分支，是调整各国探索和利用外层空间活动的原则、规则和制度的总和，是空间技术及人类空间活动发展的产物。而为了规范本国的空间活动，有些国家也在国内制定相应的立法。国际外层空间法和国内外层空间法是两个不同的法律体系，但又有着密切的联系。两者的关系主要涉及各国如何在其国内执行国际外层空间法的问题，也就是各国如何行使其依国际外层空间法所享有的权利和履行其依国际外层空间法所承担的义务的问题。[编者按]     

Outer space,Geneva and the Conference on Disarmament: Future directions

Global dependence on the space sector is increasing rapidly. However, the growing challenges outer space poses to international security have not, as yet, been effectively addressed in the United Nations Conference on Disarmament (CD) or in other multilateral fora. This paper briefly reviews the current state of affairs of international security and outer space and explores the challenges the international community faces in building international agreements for improved space security and global stability. It examines some of the hurdles that are faced in tackling space security issues are and provides some thinking on ways to overcome them. The paper concludes that there is a potential role for the disarmament community and the CD in particular. As potential conflicts in outer space emerge, having invested bodies and communities such as the CD and a strong cadre of disarmament diplomats and NGOs to act as an informed hub on space and disarmament issues is essential.     

Basic space science and developing countries

Basic science — including space science — is vital for national development, but developing countries often meet obstacles to participation in the international scientific community. This can be mitigated by international cooperation, particularly in the field of education. The author calls for a concerted effort to increase such cooperation regionally, internationally and bilaterally; international organizations should also become involved. Various forms of cooperation are suggested and UN efforts in the promotion of basic space science are described.     

Women''s views of space law and policy: no gender-based agenda

This article is a synthesis of interviews with women working and writing in the areas of space law and policy. One initial focus of the interviews was to explore whether, as a result of the growing numbers of women working in aerospace-related fields, there might be certain women's agendas developing as well. Taken together, the responses of the 10 women interviewed clearly acknowledge the importance of the feminine perspective, while rejecting the appropriateness or necessity of concentration on specific ‘women's issues’ and favouring cooperative efforts to address problems of global concern.     

Communications with extraterrestrial intelligence: a new dimension of space law

Although little progress has recently been made in concrete law, the development of two inter-related declarations regarding detection and reaction to it, has carried matters further. The declarations are summarised. It is time to formulate their principles as a document suitable for discussion within COPUOS, with the intention that eventually the General Assembly should adopt a Declaration of Principles, with the advantages of the status of such a declaration.     

Time is of the essence: making space law more effective

Traditionally, international legal rules have been established through the adoption of treaties by states, and the five space treaties adopted in the 1960s and 1970s are no exception. Accordingly, the recent proposals for overcoming problems related to the management of space activities have often envisioned the conclusion of new treaties, even a general convention, on space law. However, the process of setting norms through international treaties has certain severe weaknesses, ones affecting space law as much as, if not more than, other fields. These include the lamentably common time lag between drafting, adoption, and entry into force of international standards. Even if states manage to agree on certain provisions, by the time accords are implemented, the problems in question may have reached entirely new and different proportions and strategies that made sense when first proposed already represent ‘too little, too late’. This paper ponders the chances of making norms of international space law operative faster as well as the possibility of creating instruments whose provisions can readily accommodate changing conditions.     

Game theory and the law and policy of outer space

Cooperation is a major theme of international space law but the law and history also recognize the existence of competition and conflict. What are the trend lines in terms of promoting collective goods, commercialization and new military uses of space? An overview of selected major laws and policies, as they relate to cooperation, competition and conflict, combined with a theoretical examination of game theory (zero-sum and non-zero sum games), will enable us to obtain an overall understanding of the space age and the choices that space lawyers and policy makers face in the future.     

International law-making for outer space

While the need for adequate space law may be as urgent as ever, the international community has discovered that today it is increasingly difficult to reach consensus on statutes to govern new space activities. In view of the noticeable slowdown in the law-making process, serious discussions about the most suitable and effective techniques of space legislation are required. The author discusses the political and legal problems of making laws to deal with space and space activities. A number of suggestions aimed at improving the present legislative process are formulated.     

International space launch notification and data exchange

As missile and space launch technology continue to proliferate around the world, nations will benefit from increased transparency to mitigate the potentially strategic consequences of early warning false alarms or misinterpretations. Previous false alarms and risk mitigation steps taken by the United States and the former Soviet Union and Russia are examined. Two pre-launch notification initiatives, the bilateral US/Russia Joint Data Exchange Center and the multilateral Hague Code of Conduct, offer means to further build confidence among spacefaring nations and enhance strategic stability. Pragmatic recommendations are offered to strengthen the emerging pre-launch notification regime.     

International Heliophysical Year 2007: Basic space science initiatives

The UN Office for Outer Space Affairs, through the IHY Secretariat and the United Nations Basic Space Science Initiative (UNBSSI), assists scientists and engineers world-wide to participate in the International Heliophysical Year (IHY) 2007. A major thrust of IHY/UNBSSI is to deploy arrays of small, inexpensive instruments such as magnetometers, radio telescopes, GPS receivers, all-sky cameras, etc. around the world to allow global measurements of ionospheric and heliospheric phenomena. The small instrument program is envisioned as a partnership between instrument providers and instrument hosts in developing nations, with the former providing the instruments, the host nation the manpower, facilities and operational support, typically at a local university. Funds are not available through IHY/UNBSSI to build the instruments; these must be obtained through the normal proposal channels. All instrument operational support for local scientists, facilities, data acquisition, etc. will be provided by the host nation. The IHY/UNBSSI can facilitate the deployment of several of these networks and existing databases and relevant software tools will be identified to promote space science activities in developing nations. Extensive data on space science have been accumulated by a number of space missions. Similarly, long-term databases are available from ground-based observations. These data can be utilized in ways different from those originally intended for understanding the heliophysical processes. This report provides an overview of IHY/UNBSSI, its achievements, future plans and outreach to the 192 member states of the United Nations.     

Ukrainian national space law from an international perspective

As one of the three former Soviet republics engaged in space activities, the Ukraine has had to formulate new national space legislation as a means of demonstrating a responsible attitude to the international security system, of harmonising its legislation with that of its international political and economic partners and of creating clear guidelines for investors. This article presents the background to the formation of Ukrainian space law, describes some of the new laws enacted and discusses these within the context of international space law. Particular attention is paid to the legal regulation of commercial activities, to dual-use issues and to the effect of international cooperation on Ukrainian space law development.     

Private, state and international public interests in space law

This paper deals with the hierarchy and the interrelationship of private, state and public interests in international space law. Our purpose is to discuss which of these interests must have priority in relation to the others and to try to outline a fair and equitable balance among them in order to stimulate the rightful achievement of each one of them, avoiding harm to the others.     

International cooperation and competition in civilian space activities

This article considers how the USA can best maintain its commercial and governmental competitiveness in space, while facilitating private investment and international marketing, and at the same time keeping up significant cooperation with other nations. The current state of US civilian space activities in each of these areas is summarized, and several alternative solutions are presented. The article concludes that strengthening US competition with other space-capable nations, and improving US ability to cooperate effectively, will require careful coordination of the activities of federal agencies with each other and with the private sector.     

The participation of developing countries in space research

The Second United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (Unispace 82) identified crucial problems and made recommendations on strategies for developing countries to bridge the gap with advanced nations in the area of space technology. This article addresses some issues which, although implicit in the Unispace Report, are not discussed in detail therein. The role of space science and related scientific research is particularly emphasized. Close attention is paid to the role of human factors, such as the motivation to conduct research, the motivation to engage in international cooperation, and the motivation to utilize and exploit space. Possible opportunities for space research for developing countries, as well as relevant issues concerning management of space, are briefly discussed.