Microgravity and musculoskeletal system of mammals.

This review surveys data in the literature and our own findings concerning the effects of weightlessness on bones and muscles of white rats flown on Cosmos biosatellites and Spacelab-3. It has been shown that the magnitude and sign of functional changes in muscles depend on their biomechanical profile. Structural and metabolic foundations of functional adaptation and its dynamics have been identified: in 5-7 day flights muscle contractility changes are mainly associated with a diminished activity of excitation-contraction coupling, in longer-term flights they are produced by changes in myosin populations specific for myofibers of different functional profile. At early flight stages (up to 1 week) osteoporosis and bone demineralization are very mild; therefore decrease in bone mechanical strength may be caused by changes in physico-chemical parameters of the collagen-crystal system. In flights of up to 3 weeks noticeable osteoporosis develops which is primarily produced by osteogenesis inhibition and which is responsible for a marked decrease of bone strength. These changes may result from uncoupling of bone resorption and remodelling processes. This uncoupling is characterized as incomplete osteogenesis and may be caused by changes in the collagen composition of the organic bone matrix. The above-mentioned adaptive changes in muscle functions of specific skeletal compartments may play a role in different responses of various bones to weightlessness.     

Microgravity effects on neural retina regeneration in the newt.

Data on forelimb and eye lens regeneration in urodeles under spaceflight conditions (SFC) have been obtained in our previous studies. Today, evidence is available that SFC stimulate regeneration in experimental animals rather than inhibit it. The results of control on-ground experiments with simulated microgravity suggest that the stimulatory effect of SFC is due largely to weightlessness. An original experimental model is proposed, which is convenient for comprehensively analyzing neural regeneration under SFC. The initial results described here concern regeneration of neural retina in Pleurodeles waltl newts exposed to microgravity simulated in radial clinostat. After clinorotation for seven days (until postoperation day 16), a positive effect of altered gravity on structural restoration of detached neural retina was confirmed by a number of criteria. Specifically, an increased number of Mullerian glial cells, an increased relative volume of the plexiform layers, reduced cell death, advanced redifferentiation of retinal pigment epithelium, and extended areas of neural retina reattachment were detected in experimental newts. Moreover, cell proliferation in the inner nuclear layer of neural retina increased as compared with control. Thus, low gravity appears to intensify natural cytological and molecular mechanisms of neural retina regeneration in lower vertebrates.     

Microgravity particle research on the space station: the Gas-Grain Simulation Facility.

In the gravitational field on Earth, the large settling rate of micron-sized particles and the effects of gravity-induced convection prohibit many interesting studies of phenomena such as coagulation, collisions, and mutual interactions of droplets, dust grains and other particles. Examples of exobiology experiments involving these phenomena are the simulation of organic aerosol formation in Titan's atmosphere, studies of the role of comets in prebiotic chemical evolution, and simulations of carbon grain interactions in various astrophysical environments. The Gas-Grain Simulation Facility (GGSF) is a proposed Earth-orbital laboratory that will allow present ground-based experimental programs which study processes involving small particles and weak interactions to be extended to a new domain. Physics issues that scientists wishing to propose GGSF experiments must consider are reviewed in this paper. Specifically, coagulation, motion in gases and vacua, and wall deposition of particles in a microgravity environment are discussed.     

Evaluation of optimal configuration of hybrid Life Support System for Space.

Any comprehensive evaluation of Life Support Systems (LSS) for space applications has to be conducted taking into account not only mass of LSS components but also all relevant equipment and storage: spare parts, additional mass of space ship walls, power supply and heat rejection systems. In this paper different combinations of hybrid LSS (HLSS) components were evaluated. Three variants of power supply were under consideration--solar arrays, direct solar light transmission to plants, and nuclear power. The software based on simplex approach was used for optimizing LSS configuration with respect to its mass. It was shown that there are several LSS configuration, which are optimal for different time intervals. Optimal configurations of physical-chemical (P/C), biological and hybrid LSS for three types of power supply are presented.     

Microgravity (STS-90 Neurolab-Mission) influences synapse formation in a vestibular nucleus of fish brain.

Synapse counting was undertaken by conventional electron microscopy in primary vestibular integration centers (i.e., Nucleus descendens, Nd, and Nucleus magnocellularis, Nm, of the brainstem Area octavolateralis) and in the diencephalic visual Nucleus corticalis (Nc) of spaceflown neonate swordtail fish Xiphophorus helleri as well as in 1 g control siblings. Spaceflight (16 days microgravity, STS-90 Neurolab-Mission) yielded an increase in synaptic contacts only within the vestibular Nd indicating that lack of input resulted in compensation processes. No effect of microgravity, however, was observed in the visual Nc and in the vestibular Nm which is situated in the close vicinity of the Nd. In contrast to the latter, the Nm does not receive exclusively vestibular input, but inputs from the lateral line as well, possibly providing sufficient input at microgravity.     

Experiments on embryos in space: an overview.

The question is, "Does gravity play an essential role in the normal development of an embryo?". Experiments on Earth which have disturbed the position of the embryo relative to the gravitational force, have implied that it does. But the critical tests are those in which the embryo is maintained in conditions of microgravity. The problems, both practical and conceptual, in conducting these experiments in Space, are considered, together with a brief discussion of selected achievements to date and a look at the problems to be tackled in the future.     

Integration test project of CEEF--a test bed for Closed Ecological Life Support Systems.

CEEF (Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities) were installed at Rokkasho village in northern Japan, for the purpose of clarifying life-support mechanisms in a completely closed space, such as a Lunar or Mars base. An integration test using the Closed Plantation Experiment Facility and Closed Animal Breeding & Habitation Experiment Facility is needed before conducting an entire closed experiment including plants, animals and humans. These integration tests are planned to be conducted step by step from fiscal 2001 to 2008.     

Current and potential productivity of wheat for a Controlled Environment Life Support System.

The productivity of higher plants is determined by the incident photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) and the efficiency of the following four physiological processes: absorption of PPF by photosynthetic tissue, carbon fixation (photosynthesis), carbon use (respiration), and carbon partitioning (harvest index). These constituent processes are analyzed to determine theoretical and potentially achievable productivity. The effects of optimal environmental and cultural factors on each of these four factors is also analyzed. Results indicate that an increase in the percentage of absorbed photons is responsible for most of the improvement in wheat yields in an optimal controlled environment. Several trials confirm that there is an almost linear increase in wheat yields with increasing PPF. An integrated PPF of 150 mol m-2 d-1 (2.5 times summer sunlight) has produced 60 g m-2 d-1 of grain. Apparently, yield would continue to increase with even higher PPF's. Energy efficiency increased with PPF to about 600 micromoles m-2 s-1, then slowly decreased. We are now seeking to improve efficiency at intermediate PPF levels (1000 micromoles m-2 s-1) before further exploring potential productivity. At intermediate and equal integrated daily PPF levels, photoperiod had little effect on yield per day or energy efficiency. Decreasing temperature from 23 degrees to 17 degrees increased yield per day by 20% but increased the life cycle from 62 to 89 days. We hope to achieve both high productivity and energy efficiency.     

Spirulina acceptability trials in rats. A study for the "MELISSA" life-support system.

Groups of five rats were fed for sixteen weeks a slightly deficient diet, supplemented with 0-40% of a dried preparation of the blue-green alga Spirulina as a protein source. Control groups were fed a normal rat diet. No significant differences between groups were found in food intake, growth rate or carbon dioxide production. All animals remained apparently healthy, and had similar organ weights. The study suggests that Spirulina may be used as a protein source in rat diets.     

The "C.E.B.A.S. MINI-MODULE": a self-sustaining closed aquatic ecosystem for spaceflight experimentation.

The C.E.B.A.S. MINI-MODULE is the miniaturized space flight version of the Closed Equilibrated Biological Aquatic System (C.E.B.A.S.). It fits into a large middeck locker tray and is scheduled to be flown in the STS 85 and in the NEUROLAB missions. Its volume is about 9 liters and it consists of two animal tanks, a plant cultivator, and a bacteria filter in a monolithic design. An external sensor unit is connected to a data acquisition/control unit. The system integrates its own biological life support. The CO2 exhaled by the consumers (fishes, snails, microorganisms) is assimilated by water plants (Ceratophyllum demersum) which provide them with oxygen. The products of biomass degradation and excretion (mainly ammonia ions) are converted by bacteria into nitrite and nitrate. The latter is taken up by the plants as a nitrogen source together with other ions like phosphate. The plants convert light energy into chemical energy and their illumination is regulated via the oxygen concentration in the water by the control unit. In ground laboratory tests the system exhibited biological stability up to three month. The buffer capacity of the biological filter system is high enough to eliminate the degradation products of about one half of the dead animal biomass as shown in a "crash test". A test series using the laboratory model of the flight hardware demonstrated the biological stability and technical reliability with mission-identical loading and test duration. A comprehensive biological research program is established for the C.E.B.A.S. MINI-MODULE in which five German and three U.S.-American universities as well as the Russian Academy of Sciences are involved.     

A bioreactor system for the nitrogen loop in a Controlled Ecological Life Support System.

As space missions become longer in duration, the need to recycle waste into useful compounds rises dramatically. This problem can be addressed by the development of Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems (CELSS) (i.e., Engineered Closed/Controlled Eco-Systems (ECCES)), consisting of human and plant modules. One of the waste streams leaving the human module is urine. In addition to the reclamation of water from urine, recovery of the nitrogen is important because it is an essential nutrient for the plant module. A 3-step biological process for the recycling of nitrogenous waste (urea) is proposed. A packed-bed bioreactor system for this purpose was modeled, and the issues of reaction step segregation, reactor type and volume, support particle size, and pressure drop were addressed. Based on minimization of volume, a bioreactor system consisting of a plug flow immobilized urease reactor, a completely mixed flow immobilized cell reactor to convert ammonia to nitrite, and a plug flow immobilized cell reactor to produce nitrate from nitrite is recommended. It is apparent that this 3-step bioprocess meets the requirements for space applications.     

Using explanatory crop models to develop simple tools for Advanced Life Support system studies.

System-level analyses for Advanced Life Support require mathematical models for various processes, such as for biomass production and waste management, which would ideally be integrated into overall system models. Explanatory models (also referred to as mechanistic or process models) would provide the basis for a more robust system model, as these would be based on an understanding of specific processes. However, implementing such models at the system level may not always be practicable because of their complexity. For the area of biomass production, explanatory models were used to generate parameters and multivariable polynomial equations for basic models that are suitable for estimating the direction and magnitude of daily changes in canopy gas-exchange, harvest index, and production scheduling for both nominal and off-nominal growing conditions.     

Enzyme conversion of lignocellulosic plant materials for resource recovery in a Controlled Ecological Life Support System.

A large amount of inedible plant material composed primarily of the carbohydrate materials cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin is generated as a result of plant growth in a Controlled Ecological Life-Support System (CELSS). Cellulose is a linear homopolymer of glucose, which when properly processed will yield glucose, a valuable sugar because it can be added directly to human diets. Hemicellulose is a heteropolymer of hexoses and pentoses that can be treated to give a sugar mixture that is potentially a valuable fermentable carbon source. Such fermentations yield desirable supplements to the edible products from hydroponically-grown plants such as rapeseed, soybean, cowpea, or rice. Lignin is a three-dimensionally branched aromatic polymer, composed of phenyl propane units, which is susceptible to bioconversion through the growth of the white rot fungus, Pluerotus ostreatus. Processing conditions, that include both a hot water pretreatment and fungal growth and that lead to the facile conversion of plant polysaccharides to glucose, are presented.     

挡板对液体推进剂晃动力的影响

研究了全尺度重力探测卫星－Ｂ贮箱对于安装档板和不安装挡板情形下液体推进剂晃动的液体动力特性。结果显示,以重力瞬变加速度和重力梯度加速度为作用力的轨道加速度使液体推进剂产生了晃动,安装挡板使晃动幅度减小。由于推进剂在贮箱中上下运动的同时伴随着左右运动而产生了作用于贮箱上的力,通过液体推进剂与贮箱壁面的应力关系计算了作用在贮箱上的力。计算模拟结果显示,挡板产生的阻尼在减少流体晃恸 的同时也减少了流体作     

Mission simulation as an approach to develop requirements for automation in Advanced Life Support Systems.

This paper examines mission simulation as an approach to develop requirements for automation and robotics for Advanced Life Support Systems (ALSS). The focus is on requirements and applications for command and control, control and monitoring, situation assessment and response, diagnosis and recovery, adaptive planning and scheduling, and other automation applications in addition to mechanized equipment and robotics applications to reduce the excessive human labor requirements to operate and maintain an ALSS. Based on principles of systems engineering, an approach is proposed to assess requirements for automation and robotics using mission simulation tools. First, the story of a simulated mission is defined in terms of processes with attendant types of resources needed, including options for use of automation and robotic systems. Next, systems dynamics models are used in simulation to reveal the implications for selected resource allocation schemes in terms of resources required to complete operational tasks. The simulations not only help establish ALSS design criteria, but also may offer guidance to ALSS research efforts by identifying gaps in knowledge about procedures and/or biophysical processes. Simulations of a planned one-year mission with 4 crewmembers in a Human Rated Test Facility are presented as an approach to evaluation of mission feasibility and definition of automation and robotics requirements.     

铷原子频标TE111微波腔的仿真分析及实验

使用AnsoftHFSS软件建立铷原子频标微波腔内加载集成泡的模型,仿真并分析了集成泡尺寸和安装位置对腔体谐振频率的影响,最后进行了实验验证。结果表明,仿真得出的结论和实验结果有一定的一致性,加载不同尺寸集成泡对微波腔谐振频率影响明显并且呈一定规律分布,这对于中微波腔的设计具有重要的参考价值。     

Potentialities of theoretical and experimental prediction of Life Support Systems reliability.

To develop and design Life Support Systems it is necessary to evaluate their reliability. However direct experiments take much time, are very expensive, and therefore are practically impossible. Promising way is to use approximate estimates of reliability, which need essentially fewer amounts of experimental data. Two types of estimates of Life Support System reliability--additive and multiplicative ones are considered in the paper. Additive estimate is based on the assumption that total system failure probability is low and therefore it can be considered as the sum of failure probability of separate units. Additive approach allows obtaining near lower-bounded estimate of failure probability. Multiplicative estimate allows evaluating the possibility of system catastrophe due to simultaneous effect of several factors when each of them separately is not dangerous. Evaluation shows that the possible error of reliability forecast increases with the increasing of number of external factors faster than exponential function. An illustration of the ecological similarity approach as promising tool for providing estimation of full-scale system reliability by means the set of small similar experimental models.     

Microgravity effects on Drosophila melanogaster development and aging: comparative analysis of the results of the Fly experiment in the Biokosmos 9 biosatellite flight.

The results are presented of the exposure of Drosophila melanogaster to microgravity conditions during a 15-day biosatellite flight, Biokosmos 9, in a joint ESA-URSS project. The experimental containers were loaded before launch with a set of Drosophila melanogaster Oregon R larvae so that imagoes were due to emerge half-way through the flight. A large number of normally developed larvae were recovered from the space-flown containers. These larvae were able to develop into normal adults confirming earlier results that Drosophila melanogaster of a wild-type constitution can develop normally in the absence of gravity. However, microgravity exposure clearly enhances the number of growing embryos laid by the flies and possibly slows down the developmental pace of the microgravity-exposed animals. Due to some problems in the experimental set-up, this slowing down needs to be verified in future experiments. No live adult that had been exposed to microgravity was recovered from the experiment, so that no life span studies could be carried out, but adult males emerged from the recovered embyros showed a slight shortening in life span and a lower performance in other experimental tests of aging. This agrees with the results of previous experiments performed by our groups.     

模拟微重力对人骨髓间充质干胞向成骨细胞分化中细胞信号通路影响的分析

通过模拟来研究微重力对hMSC向成骨细胞分化的影响,并利用相关信号通路的激活剂或抑制剂来调节这一分化过程．研究结果表明,在成骨细胞分化诱导条件下,微重力降低了hMSC向成骨细胞定向分化的能力,并且成骨细胞标记性基因的表达明显降低,Runt相关转录因子2（Runx2）的表达受到抑制．相反,过氧化物酶体增殖激活受体γ（PPARγ2）的表达则增加．同时,微重力也降低了ERK的磷酸化水平,而增加了p38MAPK的磷酸化水平．使用p38MAPK的抑制剂SB203580能够抑制p38MAPK的磷酸化,但不能降低PPARγ2的表达水平．骨形态发生蛋白（BMP）能增加Runx2的表达水平．成纤维细胞生长因子2（FGF2）增加了ERK的磷酸化水平,但也不能显著增加成骨细胞标记性基因的表达水平．采用BMP,FGF2和SB203580三种因子组合来调控微重力下的成骨细胞分化能力,结果表明三者的协同作用能显著逆转微重力对成骨细胞定向分化的生物学效应．研究结果还说明,模拟微重力应该是通过不同的细胞信号通路来抑制成骨细胞分化和提升脂肪细胞分化的．