US and Soviet planetary exploration The next step is Mars, together

Soviet General Secretary Gorbachev has proposed a joint US-Soviet programme to explore the planet Mars. The authors argue that there is considerable advantage to be gained from such a programme for both countries and for all nations on Earth. They trace the history of the US and Soviet space programmes and of cooperation between the two nations, focusing particularly on activities relating to Mars. Robotic Mars exploration is already technically possible and could take place in the 1990s, and a first step towards manned exploration could be the writing of a development and flight plan aiming for the first decade of the 21st century.     

The Soviet-Russian space suits a historical overview of the 1960's

The development of protective suits for space use started with the Vostok-suit SK-1, first used by Yu. Gagarin on April 12, 1961, and then used on all subsequent Vostok-flights. The technical background for the design of these suits was the work on full pressure protective suits for military pilots and stratospheric flights in the 1930's through 50's. The Soviet-Russian space programme contains a large number of 'firsts', and one of the most well known is the first EVA by Leonov in 1965. This event is also the starting point for a long series of space suit development for Extravehicular Activities over the last 35 years. The next step to come was the transfer in void space of crew members between the two spacecraft Soyuz 4 and 5 in 1969. As has later become known this was an essential element in the planned Soviet lunar exploration programme, which in itself required a new space suit. After the termination of the lunar programme in 1972, the space suit development concentrated on suits applicable to zero-gravity work around the manned space stations Salyut 6, Salyut 7 and MIR. These suits have become known as the ORLAN-family of suits, and an advanced version of this suit (ORLAN-M) will be used on the International Space Station together with the American EMU. This paper covers the space suit development in the Soviet Union in the 1960's and the experience used from the pre-space era.     

Reconstituting the US space programme

This response to Alex Roland's article, ‘Priorities in space for the USA’, argues that his analysis and conclusions are based on shaky historical evidence. Professor Roland's interpretation of NASA's priorities since 1959 is challenged, and it is pointed out that the manned spaceflight programme has widespread support in the USA. The most important issue, raised by the article but not treated extensively enough, is whether the pursuit of the widely accepted emphasis on manned spaceflight is a large-scale societal mistake.     

Creating a UK human spaceflight capability: A modest proposal

Since the beginning of international manned activity in the early 1960s, UK governments have consistently avoided participation in human spaceflight, with its high cost and doubts over the resulting scientific gains generally cited as the reasons for opting out. This has resulted in the UK scientific community having no direct access to microgravity science experiments, while the education establishment has missed out on the gains to be had from scientific and technology inspiration for young people. It also makes realistic involvement in the future international manned exploration of the Moon and the solar system unlikely. A viable, low-cost programme could be implemented in the near future to allow for a modest UK manned access to the International Space Station. This need only cost around £50 million over five years, representing about a 5% increase in the current annual UK civil space budget, with funding sought from government departments, research councils and private industry. Making use of Soyuz commercial flights, the project would allow for two separate 10-day science missions. The small corps of three UK astronauts established for the project would form a modest ‘seed-corn’ for future international orbital, lunar and solar system manned exploration involvement for the UK. The benefits of this project would cover science research, education outreach, industrial employment and involvement in international cooperation in manned exploration of the cosmos, as well as in the microgravity research being undertaken by NASA and others.     

The history of international space programmes

In reviewing the past 50 years of international space cooperation, much of it stunningly successful, some bedevilled by difficulties, the author notes that ‘space’ can now only be understood as a complex area of widely varied sectors, further complicated by different funding sources and dual-use activities. While scientists were the initial drivers of cooperation, their flourishing programmes risk losing government funding to the grandiose manned missions being envisaged. Such funding is strongly reliant on political will rather than on the merits of any particular programme, something that, until recently with the GEO, has been particularly evident in earth observations. A major problem has been countries’ efforts to secure some minor national advantage at the expense of the bigger picture. But for international space cooperation truly to benefit humanity, a greater acceptance of working for the common good and more efficient programme management (no duplication) will be required.     

National paper of the Russian Federation

Despite its straightened circumstances and doubts about how much political support it receives, Russia's space programme continues — and continues to plan for new activities and applications. This edited version of the National Paper of the Russian Federation, presented at Unispace III in July 1999, details some of the country's major achievements in space in recent years and sets out the main areas it intends to pursue for the early twentieth-first century. While emphasis is placed on communications, remote sensing, navigation and space science, the commitment to manned flight remains.     

苏联(俄罗斯)载人航天器的发展史实

介绍了苏联（俄罗斯）各种载人航天器的研制、试验和使用情况。     

Priorities and policy analysis: A response to Alex Roland

This response to Alex Roland's article, ‘Priorities in space for the USA’, argues that his analysis and conclusions are based on shaky historical evidence. Professor Roland's interpretation of NASA's priorities since 1959 is challenged, and it is pointed out that the manned spaceflight programme has widespread support in the USA. The most important issue, raised by the article but not treated extensively enough, is whether the pursuit of the widely accepted emphasis on manned spaceflight is a large-scale societal mistake.     

Thoughts on Europe's future in space

Fearing that mistaken decisions may be made, the author offers his comments to clarify the future possibilities for Ariane, Hermes and Columbus. The decisions soon to be taken on the manned spaceflight programme will affect the future of the entire European space programme. The possibilities for air-breathing propulsion are also reviewed.     

载人航天器舱内辐射剂量监测技术综述

文章介绍了美国、苏联/俄罗斯载人航天器舱内辐射剂量监测技术及部分监测结果,分析了我国“神舟3号”和“神舟4号”飞船返回舱内的辐射剂量探测技术及结果,并在此基础上就我国载人航天器的辐射剂量探测方法提出若干建议。     

The origins and development of China's manned spaceflight programme

The development of manned spaceflight in China, which began in the 1960s, has now been progressing for over 40 years. This paper analyzes China's policy in this field from its tentative conception in 1965 to the 921 Project currently underway, before outlining future goals. The first step in China's ‘three-step’ plan has already been accomplished. The next goal, within the coming five years, is to develop rendezvous technology.     

European response to the NASA space station initiative

This article contrasts the political motivations behind the US space station initiative with those underlying the European Space Agency's Long Term Plan. Philip Chandler concludes that European cooperation in NASA's space station programme (SSP) will serve three needs: to buy time; to allow European users to undertake longer, manned experiments; and, to keep the Spacelab teams intact. However, in itself the SSP holds little value for Europe.     

The famous son of Ukrainian people V.I. Voznyuk who has provided launch of all ballistic missiles of the cosmodrome Kapustin Yar

The history of the life of V.I. Voznyuk is a history of the phenomenon of the Soviet rocket progress when the engineers with experience of launch of military rocket of small radius of action were testing the ballistic missiles. The remarkable and little-known destiny of Voznuk is the history of the Soviet rocket technology experts who had a severe practical schooling of command by the military forces of the first combat missiles “Katucha” during the grim military years (including the grandiose fight in Stalingrad) and then they have continued to launch the ballistic missiles. V.I. Voznyuk worked as the chief of the first Soviet cosmodrome Kapustin Yar for almost 30 years—since the most difficult moment of its organization. He organized a launch of the first Soviet ballistic missiles R-1, R-2, R-5M of S. Korolev. This report is about the outstanding achievement of the organizing ability of V.I. Voznyuk—about the launch of a missile with a nuclear warhead in 1956. V.I. Voznyuk closes a unique chain in the world of outstanding figures of space-rocket technology who were born or lived in Ukraine from designers of missile up to the organizers of its manufacture and now up to the organizers of the tests of rockets—J. Aizenberg, V. Budnik, O. Baclanov, V. Dogujiev, M. Galasj, N. Gerasuta, V. Gluschko, B. Gubanov, A. Gudimenko, I. Ivanov, G. Kesunjko, B. Konoplev, S. Korolev, V. Kovtunenko, V. Kukuschkin, O. Makarov, A. Nedaivoda, M. Reshetniyov, Yu. Semenov, V. Sergeev, Yu. Smetanin, V. Tchelomey, D. Torchiy, V. Utkin and M. Yangel.     

苏/俄交会对接技术研究

苏/俄交会对接技术的研发,最初是为20世纪60年代初苏联月球使命服务的,后来主要用于空间站的运输使命。因此,最初的＂联盟＂飞船逐步演变发展为联盟号载人飞船系列与进步号货运飞船系列。联盟号和进步号飞船应用＂指针＂或＂航向＂交会雷达系统,基本采用自动轨道交会方法。对应急运作,联盟号航天员可使用手控器;对于不载人的进步号使命...     

空间无损检测技术评述

随着载人航天和深空探测任务的不断推进,空间无损检测技术成为确保飞行器长期在轨安全、可靠运行的重要手段。由于空间环境条件与地面差异大,以及特殊的活动限制,使空间采用的无损检测方法与技术要求具有一定的特殊性。从20世纪80年代开始,美国、苏联等航天先进大国就开始探索在空间实施无损检测的必要性及可行方法,并开发了一些检测装置。文章对空间无损检测技术的发展状况和应用情况进行论述,并对未来技术发展方向作出展望。     

China''s space policy: review and prospects

This article reviews the current status of the Chinese space programme, covering its military origins, launchers, applications satellites, manned spaceflight and exploration. It examines the growing commercialization of China's space activities and how far this is likely to be successful, especially in the light of MTCR constraints and other legal regulations. It is nonetheless concluded that commercialization, along with joint ventures with foreign companies, has been crucial to the development of China's space programme. However, the country still lacks the resources to become a first-rank space power.     

Towards a lunar base programme

When the requisite technology exists, the US political process will inevitably include lunar surface activities as a major space objective. This article examines a manned lunar base in terms of three distinct functions: the scientific investigation of the Moon and its environment; development of the capability to use lunar resources for beneficial purposes throughout the Earth-Moon systems; and conduct of R&D leading to a self-sufficient and self-supporting manned lunar base. Three scenarios are outlined with respect to each possible function.     

Perestroika and glasnost in the soviet space programme A personal view

For many years the world-famous Kettering Group of amateur satellite observers have confounded many more ‘official’ organization with their accucary in tracking Soviet space launches. In this article the group's founder, Geoffrey E. Perry, MBE, presents his personal perspective on current developments in the Soviet space programme. The USSR's increased openness about non-sensitive issues is to be welcomed, he concludes, but the Kettering Group has work to do yet.     

Russian and Ukrainian satellites to observe the oceans

The Russian/CIS space programme is planning launches from the world’s oceans. In July 1998 a small German satellite was launched from a Russian submarine, the first launch of its kind. A whole family of submarine-launched missiles is available for commercial launches of this kind. In addition, 1999 should see the first flight in the Sea Launch programme which brings together Russian, Ukrainian, US and Norwegian experience.     

The USSR and satellite communications : Competition and cooperation

This article examines the USSR's satellite communications provision in the international arena. The author first outlines the Intercosmos programme, collaboration between the USSR and France and India, and maritime satellite communications. He then discusses in detail the INTERSPUTNIK system, and Soviet international coverage and competitiveness in television. In conclusion, the complex interaction and overlap between cooperation and competition in space is explained.