国际行星保护政策解读与技术前瞻

随着人类空间探测范围的不断拓展,行星保护成为人类后续深空探测必须要面临的一个重要问题。从行星保护的概念入手,对其研究背景以及美国、欧洲、俄罗斯等国目前相关的研究进展做了简要介绍,涉及了政策制定、标准规范、污染防控、技术体系等各个方面。载人深空探测过程中各个环节都可能存在污染源,必须针对性地开展保护和防护技术研究;深入研究国际行星保护政策、法规和技术体系,对于我国后续开展相关研究具有很好的参考和借鉴意义。     

美国国家科学院发布行星保护政策中期报告

正近期美国国家科学院发布《行星保护的目标、理由和定义:中期报告》。应NASA科学任务部的要求,针对美国政府资助的无人科学探测任务,提出了行星保护政策的目标、理由以及行星保护的定义。美国科学院下一步将针对商业探测和载人探测等涉及的行星保护问题开展进一步研究,并发布最终报告。一、政策目标行星保护政策的两个目标包括控制前向污染和后向污染。在无人地外探测任务中,前向污染是指携带来自地球的微生物的无人航天器由于着陆、环     

火星无人探测与行星保护

行星保护是每一个开展深空探测的国家都要面对的问题,火星是太阳系里最可能存在地外生命的星球之一,也是行星保护的重点关注对象,在我国火星探测即将正式启动之际,对标国际上行星保护的政策、标准、技术和管理措施,对我国未来在火星探测中满足国际上行星保护的要求至关重要。主要回顾了行星保护的历史,国外在火星探测历史上行星保护正向防护所采取的措施,以及现代科学技术发展对行星保护正向防护相关技术的影响,并对我国未来火星及深空探测活动中应该采取的行星保护正向污染防护技术提出了建议。     

载人火星探测的行星保护

行星保护是影响载人火星探索任务的重要问题之一。载人探测的行星保护包括3个方面,即防止来源于地球的微生物污染目标星球的正向污染防护、防止外来生物对地球的潜在危害的逆向污染防护,以及确保航天员的健康和安全。国际宇航界已经开始针对载人火星探测的行星保护制定政策法规和开展技术研讨。本文介绍了行星保护的定义和法理依据,简要回顾了美国国家航空航天局在“阿波罗登月”中的行星保护措施,并对未来载人火星探测中的主要污染物、污染途径以及污染防护策略进行了初步探讨。     

太阳系内行星探测活动进展与展望

行星探测是人类认识宇宙的重要手段，随着航天技术的不断发展，主要航天国家先后实施了百余次太阳系内行星探测活动，实现了太阳系内行星的飞越、环绕、着陆、巡视及采样返回。结合已实施的系内行星探测活动和将要开展的系内行星探测任务，分析了行星探测任务的特点，总结了行星探测的主要科学问题及主要发现，展望了系内行星探测的发展趋势，并结合我国行星探测近期发展规划，提出了中长期发展路线设想与引领任务建议，可为我国行星探测任务规划提供支持。     

载人航天嫁接行星探索的历史性转变

□□2004年1月布什政府发布"太空探索新构想",提出了"国际空间站"发展新的时间表,明确了载人登月球、登火星和开发太阳系其他行星的新目标.欧洲航天局(ESA)、俄罗斯、中国、日本和印度等纷纷提出行星探测新计划.世界上出现了将载人航天嫁接于行星探索和太阳系开发的重大历史性转变.     

中国月球探测进展(2011-2020年)

回顾2011至2020年10年来中国月球探测的进展,重点介绍嫦娥三号和嫦娥四号任务工程实施情况以及取得的主要科学探测成果,展望中国月球和行星探测的未来发展.     

21世纪国际月球与行星探测的发展趋势

２１世纪国际月球与行星探测的发展趋势王景泉宋智（北京空间科技信息研究所）１月球和行星探测的主要成就□□月球探测曾有美国“先驱者”等３个系列、前苏联月球号等３个系列共发射４９个探测器,其中以“阿波罗”飞船载人登月达到高峰。９０年代,国际上又掀起重返月球...     

国外航天发展动态系列报道之六──国外空间探测的发展与现状

行星探测有助于了解地球和太阳系的起源、形成和演变，特别是对离地球最近的两颗行星——火星和金星的探测，更有助于我们深入了解人类的老家——地球，并提高对保护太阳系内这块唯一的绿洲的重要性的认识。虽然月球、行星探测技术难度较大，耗资亦巨，但是，随着行星探测活动的进一步深入，月球、火星探测必将成为ZI世纪航天技术的热点之一。1近年来国外田地空间探测的发展状况从航天活动一开始，国外就大规模地开展了日地空间探测与研究活动。1981年美国、前苏联、日本和欧洲的空间组织和机构联合成立了空间科学国际机构顾问组（IACG）…     

太阳系新的行星分类

太阳系有多少颗行星?这个热门的话题现在有了正式的答案,根据2006年8月28日国际天文联盟(IAU)投票所定出的新行星定义,答案是八颗,冥王星被除名了!冥王星被重新分类为矮行星,并成为海王星外天体的原型。国际天文联盟正式承认的八颗行星,分别是水星、金星、地球、火星、土星、木     

Viability of bacterial spores exposed to hydrazine

For the purposes of planetary protection, a series of experiments were performed to answer a long-standing question about the potential of bacterial contamination of interplanetary spacecraft from liquid hydrazine. Spores of Bacillus atrophaeus (ATCC No. 9372, also known as Bacillus subtilis var. niger, and BSN) were exposed to hydrazine and survivors were enumerated using the NASA standard planetary protection pour plate assay. Results indicate that bulk hydrazine rocket propellant may be considered free of living bacterial cells for planetary protection compliance.     

U.S. planetary protection program: Implementation highlights

The implementation of planetary protection in the United States space program has reflected the trend in policy from an absolute to a probabilistic prohibition of the contamination of the celestial bodies of the solar system. The early emphasis on spacecraft sterilization (e.g. Ranger) was replaced by the imposition of contamination control procedures on later missions such as Pioneer, Viking, and Voyager. Similarly, analytical and laboratory techniques were developed to demonstrate compliance with probabilistic requirements. Microbial burden reduction methods that are not hazardous for spacecraft reliability supplanted the abstract concept of sterilization. The United States implementation of planetary protection has been completely successful. In an exploration program that has included Mercury, Venus, Mars, the Jovian system, and the Saturnian system, there have been no accidental impacts or detection of false positives (terrestrial microbes). Further, the contamination control and microbial burden procedures have proved beneficial to spacecraft systems and on-board science instruments. We review in this paper the implementation of planetary protection procedures by the Pioneer (10 and 11), Viking and Voyager projects.     

Planetary protection issues for Mars sample acquisition flight projects.

The planned NASA sample acquisition flight missions to Mars pose several interesting planetary protection issues. In addition to the usual forward contamination procedures for the adequate protection of Mars for the sake of future missions, there are reasons to ensure that the sample is not contaminated by terrestrial microbes from the acquisition mission. Recent recommendations by the Space Studies Board (SSB) of the National Research Council (United States), would indicate that the scientific integrity of the sample is a planetary protection concern (SSB, 1997). Also, as a practical matter, a contaminated sample would interfere with the process for its release from quarantine after return for distribution to the interested scientists. These matters are discussed in terms of the first planned acquisition mission.     

Revised planetary protection policy for solar system exploration

In order to control contamination of planets by terrestrial microorganisms and organic constituents, U.S. planetary missions have been governed by a planetary protection (or planetary quarantine) policy which has changed little since 1972. This policy has recently been reviewed in light of new information obtained from planetary exploration during the past decade and because of changes to, or uncertainties in, some parameters used in the existing quantitative approach. On the basis of this analysis, a revised planetary protection policy with the following key features is proposed: deemphasizing the use of mathematical models and quantitative analyses; establishing requirements for target planet/mission type (i.e., orbiter, lander, etc.) combinations; considering sample return missions a separate category; simplifying documentation; and imposing implementing procedures (i.e., trajectory biasing, cleanroom assembly, spacecraft sterilization, etc.) by exception, i.e., only if the planet/mission combination warrants such controls.     

A proposed new policy for planetary protection

In order to control contamination of planets by terrestrial microorganisms and organic constituents, U.S. planetary missions have been governed by a planetary protection (or planetary quarantine) policy which has changed little since 1972. This policy has recently been reviewed in light of new information obtained by planetary exploration during the past decade and because of changes to, or uncertainties in, some parameters used in the existing quantitative approach. On the basis of this analysis, a new planetary protection policy, with the following key features, is proposed: deemphasizing the use of mathematical models and quantitative analyses; establishing requirements for target planet/mission type (i.e., orbiter, lander, etc.) combinations; considering sample return missions a separate category; simplifying documentation; and imposing implementing procedures (i.e., trajectory biasing, cleanroom assembly, spacecraft sterilization, etc.) by exception, i.e., only if the planet/mission combination warrants such controls. Interpretation of the new policy for missions like Galileo, Mars Surface Sample Return, Saturn Orbiter with Twin Probes, and missions to comets are considered. In general, the new policy proposes elimination of all but documentation requirements for most planetary missions and simplification of the remaining compliance procedures.     

Selection of sterilization methods for planetary return missions.

Two tasks must be accomplished to provide planetary protection for Mars return missions: (1) sterilization of the scientific module to be landed on Mars and (2) reliable sterilization of all material returned to Earth, while ensuring the scientific integrity of martian samples. This paper examines similarity and differences between these two tasks, and includes a discussion of technological implementation conditions and the nature of terrestrial and hypothesized martian microflora. The feasibility of a number of chemical and physical (ultraviolet and ionizing radiation and heating) methods of sterilization for use on the ground and onboard are discussed and compared. A combination of different methods will probably be selected as the most appropriate for ensuring planetary protection on the return mission.     

Planetary protection issues of private endeavours in research,exploration, and human access to space: An environmental economics approach to forward contamination

In light of the rapidly growing New Space Economy, the landscape of space exploration and development activities will certainly become much more complicated year by year. Relevant commercial space actors have already emerged, pushing the boundaries of entrepreneurial space ventures beyond the Earth-oriented upstream and downstream market segments and opening up the path towards the novel segments of space exploration, space resources utilization, and space research. Planetary protection is usually defined as a set of guidelines concerning the avoidance of bidirectional biological material exchange between the Earth and other celestial bodies. Recent success stories of established and new-entrant NewSpace actors, although posing no realistic planetary protection threat at present, clearly indicate that serious work needs to be done in order for the relevant guidelines to keep up with the rapid advances of the technology development cycles that occur within NewSpace companies. This need may become even more urgent, as space entrepreneurs acquire and develop the resources and competencies to target the currently underserved market segments of space research, exploration, and utilization. As of now, these capabilities were maintained solely by public space agencies; thus, all planetary protection priorities, strategies, and responsibilities were discussed, agreed-upon, and delegated for implementation among national and international working groups of public stakeholders. Although top-down regulations can be effective in controlling the quality and conformity of the deliverables of private subcontractors to public contractors, international planetary protection frameworks might need to evolve even beyond such unmet public-private interaction and partnership models. For this reason, this study did not focus on the legal and political issues of mandating NewSpace actors to adhere to planetary protection guidelines; rather, drawing from the field of sustainable development on Earth, an environmental economics approach was followed, with the goal of viewing the relationship between planetary protection and private space exploration and development as another “tragedy of the commons” problem that must be settled accordingly. After the problem’s framing, i.e. the conceptual presentation and synthesis of four extraterrestrial non-excludable goods, the initial approach of their total economic value, and the negative externalities of their exploitation, a discussion of the forward contamination mitigation costs was conducted. Drawing from the literature and using examples from both the terrestrial and aerospace sectors, a pre-emptive move was suggested: the establishment of a global industry consortium for the pre-competitive collaboration in forward contamination mitigation technologies, centered on an international planetary protection analogue program and its respective testbed facility.