核热推进载人火星探测方案设计

针对载人火星探测任务,结合我国现有技术基础,提出我国载人火星探测方案,重点研究载人火星探测任务推进系统的设计。首先,综合考虑载人深空探测任务的约束,采用Pork-Chop图设计了适用于不同任务场景的转移轨迹;然后,参考我国空间站技术,基于核热推进系统设计了我国载人火星探测任务的飞船;最后,对核热推进系统的发动机台数和推力进行了优化,得到了适用于不同任务场景的最优推进系统组合方案。本文所研究内容为我国未来载人火星探测任务提供了有益参考。     

Electric transfer optimization for mars sample return mission

The aim of this paper is to analyse an alternative scenario for Mars Sample Return Orbiter mission, where electric propulsion is used for Earth-Mars and Mars-Earth heliocentric cruises and for Mars orbit insertion / escape transfers, whereas chemical propulsion is used for final Mars rendezvous. The problem consists in minimizing the initial vehicle mass to obtain a specific final dry mass in reasonable time. The planetocentric phases correspond to continuous low-thrust trajectories, spiraling around Mars between a low orbit and the influence sphere altitude. The heliocentric phases consist of a succession of low-thrust and coasting arcs with specific departure and arrival conditions at the Earth. For these two types of transfer, efficient optimal control tools exist based on Pontryagin's maximum principle. Thanks to the coordination between planetocentric and heliocentric phases, the solution obtained with these two separate tools gives a good upper bound of the optimal solution in terms of propellant consumption and duration. This optimization procedure is described and finally applied to the proposed mission. The numerical results are presented and compared with the baseline chemical mission solution. The electric option could allow to decrease the spacecraft departure mass but may lead to rather long mission duration.     

Dynamic modeling and optimization for space logistics using time-expanded networks

This research develops a dynamic logistics network formulation for lifecycle optimization of mission sequences as a system-level integrated method to find an optimal combination of technologies to be used at each stage of the campaign. This formulation can find the optimal transportation architecture considering its technology trades over time. The proposed methodologies are inspired by the ground logistics analysis techniques based on linear programming network optimization. Particularly, the time-expanded network and its extension are developed for dynamic space logistics network optimization trading the quality of the solution with the computational load. In this paper, the methodologies are applied to a human Mars exploration architecture design problem. The results reveal multiple dynamic system-level trades over time and give recommendation of the optimal strategy for the human Mars exploration architecture. The considered trades include those between In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) and propulsion technologies as well as the orbit and depot location selections over time. This research serves as a precursor for eventual permanent settlement and colonization of other planets by humans and us becoming a multi-planet species.     

Comparative assessment of human–Mars-mission technologies and architectures

We compare a variety of mission scenarios to assess the strengths and weaknesses of options for Mars exploration. The mission design space is modeled along two dimensions: trajectory architectures and propulsion system technologies. We examine direct, semi-direct, stop-over, semi-cycler, and cycler architectures, and we include electric propulsion, nuclear thermal rockets, methane and oxygen production on Mars, Mars water excavation, aerocapture, and reusable propulsion systems in our technology assessment. The mission sensitivity to crew size, vehicle masses, and crew travel time is also examined. Many different combinations of technologies and architectures are applied to the same Mars mission to determine which combinations provide the greatest potential reduction in the injected mass to LEO. We approximate the technology readiness level of a mission to rank development risk, but omit development cost and time calculations in our assessment. It is found that Earth–Mars semi-cyclers and cyclers require the least injected mass to LEO of any architecture and that the discovery of accessible water on Mars has the most dramatic effect on the evolution of Mars exploration.     

Following the water,the new program for Mars exploration

In the wake of the loss of Mars Climate Orbiter and Mars Polar Lander in late 1999, NASA embarked on a major review of the failures and subsequently restructured all aspects of what was then called the Mars Surveyor Program--now renamed the Mars Exploration Program. This paper presents the process and results of this reexamination and defines a new approach which we have called "Program System Engineering". Emphasis is given to the scientific, technological, and programmatic strategies that were used to shape the new Program. A scientific approach known as "follow the water" is described, as is an exploration strategy we have called "seek--in situ--sample". An overview of the mission queue from continuing Mars Global Surveyor through a possible Mars Sample Return Mission launch in 2011 is provided. In addition, key proposed international collaborations, especially those between NASA, CNES and ASI are outlined, as is an approach for a robust telecommunications infrastructure.     

How we will go to Mars

This article studies the efficiency of ejecting waste generated by the life support system (LSS) of a manned spacecraft to reduce initial mass on low earth orbit. The spacecraft is used for a long-duration interplanetary mission and is equipped with either a chemical or a nuclear-thermal propulsion system. For this study we simulate an optimal control problem for a given spacecraft maneuver. An impulsive approximation of the optimal interplanetary spacecraft trajectory is assumed, which allows us to reduce the general optimal control problem to hierarchic structure of 'outer' and 'inner' subproblems. This structure is analyzed using the Pontryagin's Maximum principle. Numerical results, illustrating the efficiency of waste ejection are shown for typical Earth-Mars transfer trajectories. This results confirm in theory that using a waste ejection system makes an early manned Mars mission possible without having to design and build new, advanced biological LSS.     

Public perceptions of the Mars sample return program

In 2014 NASA may bring back a sample of Mars rocks, soil and atmosphere to Earth. The most likely location for returning this sample will be somewhere in the central USA. The purpose of the project is to understand the history of Mars; the samples may also reveal evidence of previous or existing life on Mars. Confirmation of this possibility would rank as one of the most profound discoveries in human history, yet to date it is unclear how the public in the USA actually views the mission. This study addresses this issue by examining the views of 70 residents of Cincinnati, OH. These perceptions are examined in light of the conceptual ideas and theories presented in the risk perception and communication literatures. While respondents were generally favourable towards a Mars sample return mission, and largely unworried by possible risks, they did have concerns about the use of plutonium for electrical propulsion and were somewhat ill-informed about the issues.     

国外深空探测推进技术发展及启示

推进系统为探测器的飞行提供所需的控制力和控制力矩,一定程度上决定了探测器的规模、最远飞行距离,乃至任务的成败,是探测器的重要分系统之一。为满足不同的深空探测任务需求,国外发展了多种形式的推进技术,但总体上仍以化学推进为主,部分采用了电推进系统,并在发展高性能低温推进技术等。对国外典型探测器推进系统进行了叙述,分析了其技术特点和发展趋势,并分别针对无人探测和载人探测应用探讨了对我国开展深空探测推进技术研究的启示。     

Low cost planetary exploration: surrey lunar minisatellite and interplanetary platform missions

In order to meet the growing global requirement for affordable missions beyond Low Earth Orbit, two types of platform are under design at the Surrey Space Centre. The first platform is a derivative of Surrey's UoSAT-12 minisatellite, launched in April 1999 and operating successfully in-orbit. The minisatellite has been modified to accommodate a propulsion system capable of delivering up to 1700 m/s delta-V, enabling it to support a wide range of very low cost missions to LaGrange points, Near-Earth Objects, and the Moon. A mission to the Moon - dubbed “MoonShine” - is proposed as the first demonstration of the modified minisatellite beyond LEO. The second platform - Surrey's Interplanetary Platform - has been designed to support missions with delta-V requirements up to 3200 m/s, making it ideal for low cost missions to Mars and Venus, as well as Near Earth Objects (NEOs) and other interplanetary trajectories. Analysis has proved mission feasibility, identifying key challenges in both missions for developing cost-effective techniques for: spacecraft propulsion; navigation; autonomous operations; and a reliable safe mode strategy. To reduce mission risk, inherently failure resistant lunar and interplanetary trajectories are under study. In order to significantly reduce cost and increase reliability, both platforms can communicate with low-cost ground stations and exploit Surrey's experience in autonomous operations. The lunar minisatellite can provide up to 70 kg payload margin in lunar orbit for a total mission cost US$16–25 M. The interplanetary platform can deliver 20 kg of scientific payload to Mars or Venus orbit for a mission cost US$25–50 M. Together, the platforms will enable regular flight of payloads to the Moon and interplanetary space at unprecedented low cost. This paper outlines key systems engineering issues for the proposed Lunar Minisatellite and interplanetary Platform Missions, and describes the accommodation and performance offered to planetary payloads.     

Optimum design of power-limited propulsion systems with application to fast Earth-to-Mars transfer

Power-limited systems with variable Isp, which have been studied theoretically since the beginning of astronautics, are getting closer to practical applications thanks to recent technological advances in the field of magnetosplasma rockets, such as Ad-Astra’s VASIMR concept. This type of propulsion system is considered for high-speed interplanetary transfers, such as Mars missions, with demanding payload fractions that would be compatible with manned missions. This paper explores the problem of the optimization of a power-limited propulsion system through simple performance models, and investigates the trade-off between the technological requirements, the transfer time and the payload fraction¹. Following previous works existing in literature, we model the technological characteristics of the vehicle through a small number of parameters, the most important of which being the specific weight (or mass-to-power ratio) of the power generation system. Also, we use in our models the classical “trajectory characteristic” parameter (defined as the integral over time of the squared thrust acceleration) which represents – under certain hypotheses – the propulsion requirements for an orbital or interplanetary transfer with a given time and a given thrust strategy. In this paper, we first give a review of existing methods in literature, then we present the equations of a new class of optimal design which maximizes the payload fraction, for a given transfer time and given technological characteristics. This class of optimal design is described through very simple equations that make possible to study more straightforwardly than existing calculations the links between the main mission requirements (transfer time and payload fraction) and the main technological requirements (specific weight of the power generation and structure mass ratio of the whole vehicle, excluding the power generation system). One important result obtained from these equations is a simple expression which estimates the theoretical upper limit of the power source’s specific weight as a function of transfer time and the payload mass ratio. In the last part of this paper, we apply this simple performance model to discuss the feasibility of a fast Earth-to-Mars transfer using a power-limited system.     

Overview and status of a mirror fusion propulsion system design study

The main goal of this paper is to describe and emphasize the important discoveries made since 1986 in the engineering design of space fusion propulsion plants.

Among the important discoveries are four fundamental design principles (DPs) which should be used when adapting candidate Earth-based fusion-electric power plants to propulsion in space.

1. DP1. Maximize direct access to space for waste radiation.

2. DP2. Operate components as passive radiators whenever possible.

3. DP3. Optimize the plasma characteristics for best specific jet power

4. DP4. Optimize mission capability versus lifetime-mass-to-orbit (LMTO).

Another discovery is a design philosophy called IDEAs (Integrated Design Environment Algorithms) which is a tool for discovering new fundamental design principles.

These discoveries allowed us to adapt, and then to optimize, an earth-based fusion-electric magnetic-mirror-fusion reactor concept for propulsion in space. The resulting design is called the Mirror Fusion Propulsion System (MFPS); and its design status is reviewed.

This work can be used as a general road map for others attempting to convert earth-based designs to propulsion in space. It also has applicability to matter-antimatter propulsion systems engineering.     

Mars Direct: Humans to the red planet by 1999

“Mars Direct”, is an approach to the space Exploration Initiative that allows for the rapid initiation of manned Mars exploration, possibly as early as 1999. The approach does not require any on-orbit assembly or refueling or any support from the Space Station or other orbital infrastructure. Furthermore, the Mars Direct plan is not merely a “flags and footprints” one-shot expedition, but puts into place immediately an economical method of Earth-Mars transportation, real surface exploratory mobility, and significant base capabilities that can evolve into a mostly self-sufficient Mars settlement. This paper presents both the initial and evolutionary phases of the Mars Direct plan. In the initial phase, only chemical propulsion is used, sendig 4 persons on conjunction class Mars exploratory missions. Two heavy lift booster launches are required to support each mission. The first launch delivers an unfueled Earth Return Vehicle (ERV) to the martian surface, where it fills itself with methane/oxygen bipropellant manufactured primarily out of indigenous resources. After propellant production is completed, a second launch delivers the crew to the prepared site, where they conduct regional exploration for 1.5 years and then return directly to Earth in the ERV. In the second phase of Mars Direct, nuclear thermal propulsion is used to cut crew transit times in half, increase cargo delivery capacity, and to create the potential for true global mobility through the use of CO₂ propelled ballistic hopping vehicles (“NIMFs”). In this paper we present both phases of the Mars Direct plan, including mission architecture, vehicle designs, and exploratory strategy leading to the establishment of a 48 person permanent Mars base. Some speculative thoughts on the possibility of actually colonizing Mars are also presented.     

From Earth's orbit to the outer planets and beyond: Psychological issues in space

Current planning for the first interplanetary expedition to Mars envisions a crew of 6 or 7 people and a mission duration of around 2.5 years. However, this time frame is much less than that expected on expeditions to the outer solar system, where total mission durations of 10 years or more are likely. Although future technological breakthroughs in propulsion systems and space vehicle construction may speed up transit times, for now we must realistically consider the psychological impact of missions lasting for one or more decades.Available information largely deals with on-orbit missions. In research that involved Mir and ISS missions lasting up to 7 months, our group and others have studied the effects of psychological and interpersonal issues on crewmembers and on the crew-ground relationship. We also studied the positive effects of being in space. However, human expeditions to the outer planets and beyond will introduce a number of new psychological and interpersonal stressors that have not been experienced before. There will be unprecedented levels of isolation and monotony, real-time communication with the Earth will not be possible, the crew will have to work autonomously, there will be great dependence on computers and other technical resources located on board, and the Earth will become an insignificant dot in space or will even disappear from view entirely.Strategies for dealing with psychological issues involving missions to the outer solar system and beyond will be considered and discussed, including those related to new technologies being considered for interstellar missions, such as traveling at a significant fraction of the speed of light, putting crewmembers in suspended animation, or creating giant self-contained generation ships of colonists who will not return to Earth.     

Space nuclear power: technology, policy, and risk considerations in human missions to Mars

There is a large discrepancy between potential needs for nuclear propulsion and power systems for the human exploration of Mars and the current status of R&D funding, public opinion, and governmental support for these technologies. Mission planners and spacecraft designers, energized by the recent claims of possible discovery of life on Mars and responding to increased public interest in the human exploration of Mars, frequently propose nuclear reactors and radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) for interplanetary spacecraft propulsion and for power supply on the surface of Mars. These plans and designs typically assume that reactors will be available "on-the-shelf," and do not take the extensive R&D costs required to develop such reactors into consideration. However, it is likely that current U.S. policies, if unchanged, will prohibit the launch of nuclear reactors and large RTGs in response to a perceived risk by the public.     

Design issues for a mission to exploit the gravitational lensing effect at 550 AU

Reported herein are the first results of a NASA-sponsored study at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), California Institute of Technology, exploring the scientific promise and technological viability of a mission to exploit the gravitational lensing effect of the Sun to obtain huge antenna gains for electromagnetic waves grazing the Sun's disk. With regard to scientific promise, these results, reported at about the halfway point of the study, substantiate the huge antenna gains offered by, as it will be called here, a Solar Gravitational Telescope (SGT) and point to the instrument's potential promise as a “discovery machine” but suggest considerable limitations to the telescope's usefulness as a general purpose astrophysical research tool. These limitations are seen to arise, primarily, from the geometry and scale of the “virtual” telescope which must be achieved and maintained to utilize the lensing effect and the turbulence effects of the Sun's plasma on the observed target's signal. With regard to technological viability, the preliminary results suggest a very aggressive use of unproven, as-yet-unflown new technology will be required to enable the desired science observations and mission durations approaching the short (3–10 year) NASA-targeted mission duration goal. Key needed new technologies are advanced propulsion, lightweight telescopes, membrane mirrors, inflatable/rigidizeable structures, and novel coronagraphic techniques.     

核火箭原理、发展及应用

人类在不懈地对浩瀚的宇宙进行着探索,而强劲的推力是人类探索宇宙的关键。化学火箭在人类宇宙探索活动中书写了一页又一页的华丽篇章,现今在人类新的探索使命下,出现了激光、太阳能、微波、核热能等新的推进技术。在这些技术中,核火箭推进无疑是人类继续探索太空最有希望的技术之一。对核火箭的原理、发展状况以及应用前景进行了介绍。     

Manned missions to Mars: Minimizing risks of failure

Some major risks-of-failure issues for the future manned missions to Mars are discussed, with an objective to address criteria for making such missions possible, successful, safe and cost-effective. The following astronautical and instrumentation-and-equipment-reliability related aspects of the missions are considered: redundancies and backup strategies; costs; assessed probability of failure as a suitable reliability criterion for the instrumentation (equipment); probabilistic assessment of the likelihood of the mission success and safety. It is concluded that parametric risk modeling is a must for a risk-driven decision-making process.     

Single crystal mo solar thermal thruster for microsatellites

One potentially attractive propulsion concept offering significant payload gains for orbit transfer from LEO to higher orbits, station keeping and attitude control of spacecraft is thermal propulsion using light gas (typically hydrogen) as propellant and various kinds of heat energy. Solar Thermal Propulsion (STP) is a typical thermal propulsion with high Isp (500 – 1,000 s) in an appropriate thrust magnitude range and provides possibly much less space pollution than conventional chemical propulsion.

This paper presents the test results of a 30 mm dia. (medium-sized) windowless type of single crystal Mo thruster for orbit transfer of 50 kg class microsatellites. The cavity dia. is 20 mm, double the size of the previous model, and can apply to a primary solar reflector of up to 3.5 m dia., which is the maximum size containable in the H-II rocket fairing without segmentation. The performed mission analyses indicate that this size of STP is suitable to orbit transfer of 50 kg class microsatellites, such as LEO to GEO, or only multiple apogee kicks from GTO to GEO or deep space missions.     

Apogee manoeuvre with a restartable liquid bipropellant motor

Unified Propulsion Systems present perceptible advantages for geostationary spacecrafts design: mass savings, as the ergols tanks are the same for the apogee motor and for the Attitude and Orbit Control System, higher performance, as specific impulse of bi-ergols motors is higher than the one of solid propellant motors and higher operational flexibility as the fuel amount can be adapted to the real flight conditions and as biliquid motors are restartable. On the other hand, the use of these propulsion systems for geostationary spacecrafts sets quite new mission analysis problems: the “predictability” of each delivered Delta-V is rather coarse (the corresponding uncertainty is about 4% for the existing motors). Also, only midlevel thrusters (about 400N) are available and so the finite burn losses associated with long burns arcs have to be minimized. This paper surveys the problems resulting from these new operational constraints and deals successively with the following items: optimal splitting up of the apogee manoeuvre, taking into account the possible dispersions on each Delta-V and the on-station longitude acquisition; minimization of the finite burn losses; adaptation of the apogee manoeuvre to the initial orbit parameters corresponding to the first North-South station-keeping cycle. The operation procedures derived from this survey will be used for the future launch of the ARABSAT spacecraft and for the following spacecrafts of the SPACEBUS family.     

A methodology to support strategic decisions in future human space exploration: From scenario definition to building blocks assessment

The human exploration of multiple deep space destinations (e.g. Cis-Lunar, NEAs), in view of the final challenge of sending astronauts to Mars, represents a current and consistent study domain especially in terms of its possible scenarios and mission architectures assessments, as proved by the numerous on-going activities about this topic and moreover by the global exploration roadmap. After exploring and analysing different possible solutions to identify the most flexible path, a detailed characterisation of several Design Reference Missions (DRMs) represents a necessity in order to evaluate the feasibility and affordability of deep space exploration missions, specifically in terms of enabling technological capabilities.The study presented in this paper was aimed at defining an evolutionary scenario for deep space exploration in the next 30 years with the final goal of sending astronauts on the surface of Mars by the end of 2030 decade. Different destinations were considered as targets to build the human exploration scenario, with particular attention to Earth–Moon Lagrangian points, NEA and Moon. For all the destinations selected as part of the exploration scenario, the assessment and characterisation of the relative Design Reference Missions were performed. Specifically they were defined in terms of strategies, architectures and mission elements. All the analyses were based on a pure technical approach with the objective of evaluating the feasibility of a long term strategy for capabilities achievement and technological development to enable future space exploration.This paper describes the process that was followed within the study, focusing on the adopted methodology, and reports the major obtained results, in terms of scenario and mission analysis.