The dynamics and control of the CubeSail mission: A solar sailing demonstration

The CubeSail mission is a low-cost demonstration of the UltraSail solar sailing concept (, ,  and ), using two near-identical CubeSat satellites to deploy a 260 m-long, 20 m² reflecting film. The two satellites are launched as a unit, detumbled, and separated, with the film unwinding symmetrically from motorized reels. The conformity to the CubeSat specification allows for reduction in launch costs as a secondary payload and utilization of the University of Illinois-developed spacecraft bus. The CubeSail demonstration is the first in a series of increasingly-complex missions aimed at validating several spacecraft subsystems, including attitude determination and control, the separation release unit, reel-based film deployment, as well as the dynamical behavior of the sail and on-orbit solar propulsion. The presented work describes dynamical behavior and control methods used during three main phases of the mission. The three phases include initial detumbling and stabilization using magnetic torque actuators, gravity-gradient-based deployment of the film, and steady-state film deformations in low Earth orbit in the presence of external forces of solar radiation pressure, aerodynamic drag, and gravity-gradient.     

面向立方星变轨任务的机动控制策略

为了实现立方星在轨飞行与变轨,基于模块化推进器系统提出混合控制策略实现微小卫星轨道持续变化任务需求。首先,针对多单元立方星单一主推进器的结构部署,基于高斯变分方程采用连续低推进力实现轨道机动变化。为了实现对立方星主推进器的指向调整,基于姿态动力学模型利用PD连续姿态控制求得所需扭矩,实现对立方星的指向角和指向角速度调节。针对配置的微脉冲等离子推进器(μ-PPT)不连续的特点,通过搜寻μ PPT最优脉冲序列组合获得实际扭矩,满足对外部干扰的持续补偿以及立方星的姿态稳定和指向调整操作需求。此外,引入姿态误差敏感度阈值,使姿态控制器在能够提高系统鲁棒性的同时减少μ-PPT消耗。最后,通过对3U立方星在轨飞行与变轨的具体案例分析,表明所提出的基于微推进器系统的混合控制策略能够实现立方星轨道机动变化需求。     

Durability characterization of mechanical interfaces in solar sail membrane structures

The construction of a solar sail from commercially available metallized film presents several challenges. The solar sail membrane is made by seaming together precut lengths of ultrathin metallized polymer film into the required geometry. This assembled sail membrane is then folded into a small stowage volume prior to launch. The sail membranes must have additional features for connecting to rigid structural elements (e.g., sail booms) and must be electrically grounded to the spacecraft bus to prevent charge build up. Space durability of the material and mechanical interfaces of the sail membrane assemblies will be critical for the success of any solar sail mission. In this study, interfaces of polymer/metal joints in a representative solar sail membrane assembly were tested to ensure that the adhesive interfaces and the fastening grommets could withstand the temperature range and expected loads required for mission success. Various adhesion methods, such as surface treatment, commercial adhesives, and fastening systems, were experimentally tested in order to determine the most suitable method of construction.     

Deorbiter CubeSat mission design

This paper presents the mission design for a CubeSat-based active debris removal approach intended for transferring sizable debris objects from low-Earth orbit to a deorbit altitude of 100 km. The mission consists of a mothership spacecraft that carries and deploys several debris-removing nanosatellites, called Deorbiter CubeSats. Each Deorbiter is designed based on the utilization of an eight-unit CubeSat form factor and commercially-available components with significant flight heritage. The mothership spacecraft delivers Deorbiter CubeSats to the vicinity of a predetermined target debris, through performing a long-range rendezvous maneuver. Through a formation flying maneuver, the mothership then performs in-situ measurements of debris shape and orbital state. Upon release from the mothership, each Deorbiter CubeSat proceeds to performing a rendezvous and attachment maneuver with a debris object. Once attached to the debris, the CubeSat performs a detumbling maneuver, by which the residual angular momentum of the CubeSat-debris system is dumped using Deorbiter’s onboard reaction wheels. After stabilizing the attitude motion of the combined Deorbiter-debris system, the CubeSat proceeds to performing a deorbiting maneuver, i.e., reducing system’s altitude so much so that the bodies disintegrate and burn up due to atmospheric drag, typically at around 100 km above the Earth surface. The attitude and orbital maneuvers that are planned for the mission are described, both for the mothership and Deorbiter CubeSat. The performance of each spacecraft during their operations is investigated, using the actual performance specifications of the onboard components. The viability of the proposed debris removal approach is discussed in light of the results.     

太阳帆航天器编队维持和重构的方法研究

针对高面质比航天器可以利用太阳光压进行轨道控制的特点,本文提出一种太阳帆航天器编队构型维持和重构的方法.该方法通过控制主从航天器太阳帆姿态角和反射系数,调整主从航天器之间的光压差,产生抵消编队成员间相对运动受到摄动差或进行轨道机动时所需的连续小推力,从而实现编队构型的维持和重构.仿真结果表明,在主航天器太阳帆的姿态角和反射系数相对固定的条件下,对于太阳同步轨道上的高面质比太阳帆航天器编队,使用滑模控制方法,能够调整编队中从航天器太阳帆的姿态角和反射系数产生推力抵消摄动力影响,达到长期维持太阳帆航天器编队构型的目的;通过开环控制方法,能够调整编队中从航天器太阳帆的姿态角和反射系数产生连续小推力,在较长时间周期内实现编队重构.     

基于ECSS标准的航天器姿轨控系统内1553B总线数据协议设计

摘要： 国内外航天器姿轨控系统广泛应用基于1553B内总线的体系结构.针对国内航天器姿轨控系统内部1553B总线数据协议不统一带来的可集成性、可扩展性和通用性差的问题，本文设计了基于ECSS标准的姿轨控系统内1553B数据总线协议，从姿轨控系统内部总线数据业务需求分析出发，提出了四层结构的数据协议体系结构，重点介绍了在应用支持层和链路服务层应用ECSS标准的总线协议设计，并说明了协议的应用情况.应用该国际通用的标准协议，有助于实现国内航天器姿轨控系统内1553B总线数据协议的标准化，进而提升姿轨控系统体系结构的可集成性、可扩展性、以及星载设备(含软件)的通用化.     

A deorbiter CubeSat for active orbital debris removal

This paper introduces a mission concept for active removal of orbital debris based on the utilization of the CubeSat form factor. The CubeSat is deployed from a carrier spacecraft, known as a mothership, and is equipped with orbital and attitude control actuators to attach to the target debris, stabilize its attitude, and subsequently move the debris to a lower orbit where atmospheric drag is high enough for the bodies to burn up. The mass and orbit altitude of debris objects that are within the realms of the CubeSat’s propulsion capabilities are identified. The attitude control schemes for the detumbling and deorbiting phases of the mission are specified. The objective of the deorbiting maneuver is to decrease the semi-major axis of the debris orbit, at the fastest rate, from its initial value to a final value of about 6471?km (i.e., 100?km above Earth considering a circular orbit) via a continuous low-thrust orbital transfer. Two case studies are investigated to verify the performance of the deorbiter CubeSat during the detumbling and deorbiting phases of the mission. The baseline target debris used in the study are the decommissioned KOMPSAT-1 satellite and the Pegasus rocket body. The results show that the deorbiting times for the target debris are reduced significantly, from several decades to one or two years.     

太阳帆航天器的关键技术

将太阳帆航天器所涉及的关键技术划分为4个方面：总体设计、轨道和姿态动力学与控制、太阳帆材料及其性能、太阳帆折叠与展开。针对每项关键技术,基于对国外长期研究结果进行分析并阐述主要技术特征,梳理国内相关研究进展,包括笔者与合作者的研究成果,分析存在的主要问题。根据上述分析,指出我国发展太阳帆航天器应该重视的若干问题。     

Performance analysis and mission applications of a new solar sail concept based on crossed booms with tip-deployed membranes

For precursor solar sail activities a strategy for a controlled deployment of large membranes was developed based on a combination of zig-zag folding and coiling of triangular sail segments spanned between crossed booms. This strategy required four autonomous deployment units that were jettisoned after the deployment is completed. In order to reduce the complexity of the system an adaptation of that deployment strategy is investigated.A baseline design for the deployment mechanisms is established that allows the deployment actuation from a central bus system in order to reduce the complexity of the system. The mass of such a sail craft will be slightly increased but its performance is still be reasonable for first solar sail missions.The presented design will be demonstrated on breadboard level showing the feasibility of the deployment strategy. The characteristic acceleration will be evaluated and compared to the requirements of certain proposed solar sail missions.     

姿态角幅值约束下的太阳帆Lissajous轨道保持控制

太阳帆航天器以两姿态角作为轨道控制输入时, 其轨道动力学方程具有非仿射非线性特性. 通过人工平动点处线性化获得的线性系统可完成太阳帆航天器轨道保持控制器的分析与设计. 由于线性近似模型为有误差模型, 存在近似有效范围约束, 表现为轨道高度约束和姿态角幅值约束. 本文研究了姿态角幅值约束对线性近似模型有效性的影响, 通过计算给出满足近似误差要求的姿态角幅值约束. 当控制输入存在幅值约束时, 控制器轨道修正能力受到束缚. 通过研究姿态角幅值约束下的最大允许入轨误差, 设计了最大允许入轨误差下线性二次型调节器(LQR)用于轨道保持控制, 并将控制器应用于太阳帆日地三体系统非线性模型中, 实现了日地人工L₁点Lissajous轨道最大允许入轨误差的控制收敛和良好精度下的轨道保持控制.      

Systems design of a hybrid sail pole-sitter

This paper presents the preliminary systems design of a pole-sitter. This is a spacecraft that hovers over an Earth pole, creating a platform for full hemispheric observation of the polar regions, as well as direct-link telecommunications. To provide the necessary thrust, a hybrid propulsion system combines a solar sail with a more mature solar electric propulsion (SEP) thruster. Previous work by the authors showed that the combination of the two allows lower propellant mass fractions, at the cost of increased system complexity. This paper compares the pure SEP spacecraft with the hybrid spacecraft in terms of the launch mass necessary to deliver a certain payload for a given mission duration. A mass budget is proposed, and the conditions investigated under which the hybrid sail saves on the initial spacecraft initial mass. It is found that the hybrid spacecraft with near- to mid-term sail technology has a lower initial mass than the SEP case if the mission duration is 7 years or more, with greater benefits for longer duration missions. The hybrid spacecraft with far-term sail technology outperforms the pure SEP case even for short missions.     

月球立方星姿态控制系统的初步设计与测试

立方星是一种模块化的微小卫星,在科学探测与专业人才培养等方面具有重要意义。针对目前立方星任务逐渐从近地轨道向深空扩展的发展趋势,以立方星月球深空任务为背景,利用商业器件设计并实现了初步的立方星姿态控制系统,以及姿态控制系统所必需的结构、电源、计算机等立方星子系统,同时给出了姿态测试平台的设计方案及其硬件实现。在所搭建硬件平台上,通过测量飞轮控制器的阻尼系数,对控制模型进行参数辨识与标定,获得了与数值仿真一致的实物测试结果。针对姿态控制系统设计了PD控制律,并在控制实验中实现了至任意姿态角的机动控制。     

Assessing attitude error of FORMOSAT-3/COSMIC satellites and its impact on orbit determination

An attitude determination and control system (ADCS) is critical to satellite attitude maneuvers and to the coordinate transformation from the inertial frame to the spacecraft frame. This paper shows specific sensors in the ADCS of the satellite mission FORMOSAT-3/COSMIC (F3/C) and the impact of the ADCS quality on orbit accuracy. The selection of main POD antenna depends on the beta angles of the different F3/C satellites (for FM2 and FM4) during the inflight phase. In particular, under the eclipse, alternative attitude sensors are activated to replace the Sun sensors, and such a sensor change leads to anomalous GPS phase residuals and a degraded orbit accuracy. Since the nominal attitude serves as a reference for ADCS, the 3-dimensional attitude-induced errors in reduced dynamic orbits over selected days in 2010 show 9.35, 10.78, 4.97, 5.48, 7.18, and 6.89 cm for FM1–FM6. Besides, the 3-dimensional velocity errors induced by the attitude effect are 0.10, 0.10, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, and 0.10 for FM1–FM6. We analyze the quality of the observed attitude transformation matrix of F3/C and its impact on kinematic orbit determination. With 249 days of GPS in 2008, the analysis leads to the following averaged 3-dimensional attitude-induced orbit errors: 2.72, 2.62, 2.37, 1.90, 1.70, and 1.99 cm for satellites FM1–FM6. Critical suggestions of geodetic payloads for the follow-on mission of F3/C are presented based on the current result.     

Spinning solar sail orbit steering via spin rate control

The orbit of a solar sail can be controlled by changing the attitude of the spacecraft. In this study, we consider the spinning solar power sail IKAROS (Interplanetary Kite-craft Accelerated by Radiation Of the Sun), which is managed by Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). The IKAROS attitude, i.e., the direction of its spin-axis, is nominally controlled by the rhumb-line control method. By utilizing the solar radiation torque, however, we are able to change the direction of the spin-axis by only controlling its spin rate. With this spin rate control, we can also control indirectly the solar sail’s trajectory. The main objective of this study is to construct the orbit control strategy of the solar sail via the spin-rate control method. We evaluate this strategy in terms of its propellant consumption compared to the rhumb-line control method. Finally, we present the actual flight attitude data of IKAROS and the change of its trajectory.     

Modeling and attitude control of CubeSat utilizing moving mass actuators

Any vehicle propelled by solid rocket motors (SRMs) must include an attitude control system capable of dealing with the torque generated by thrust misalignment. In order to expand the application of SRMs on CubeSats, an attitude control system utilizing moving mass actuators is discussed. The present research develops an eight-degree-of-freedom simulation model of a 2U CubeSat with two moving mass actuators. That model also considers the influence of propellant combustion processes. By analyzing the model disturbance source and systematic coupling, the key layout parameters are designed and a simplified control model is proposed. The controller is derived based on a combination of backstepping and sliding mode techniques. An orbit maneuver from 300 km circular orbit to 300 and 500 km elliptical orbit using this attitude control system is verified.     

Solar sail near the Sun: Point-like and extended models of radiation source

Some modifications of solar sail radiation pressure forces on a plate and on a sphere for use in the numerical simulation of ‘local-optimal’ (or ‘instantaneously optimal’) trajectories of a spacecraft with a solar sail are suggested. The force model development is chronologically reviewed, including its connection with solar sail surface reflective and thermal properties. The sail surface is considered as partly absorbing, partly reflective (specular and diffuse), partly transparent. Thermal balance is specified because the spacecraft moves from circular Earth orbit to near-Sun regions and thermal limitations on the sail film are taken into account. A spherical sail-balloon can be used in near-Sun regions for scientific research beginning with the solar-synchronous orbit and moving outward from the Sun. The Sun is considered not only as a point-like source of radiation but also as an extended source of radiation which is assumed to be consequently as a point-like source of radiation, a uniformly bright flat solar disc and uniformly bright solar sphere.     

Paths not taken – The Gossamer roadmap’s other options

Highly efficient low-thrust propulsion is increasingly applied beyond commercial use, also in mainstream and flagship science missions, in combination with gravity assist propulsion. Another recent development is the growth of small spacecraft solutions, not in size but in numbers and individual capabilities.Just over ten years ago, the DLR-ESTEC Gossamer Roadmap to Solar Sailing was set up to guide technology developments towards a propellant-less and highly efficient class of spacecraft for solar system exploration and applications missions: small spacecraft solar sails designed for carefree handling and equipped with carried application modules.Soon, in three dedicated Gossamer Roadmap Science Working Groups it initiated studies of missions uniquely feasible with solar sails such as Displaced L₁ (DL1) space weather advance warning and monitoring, Solar Polar Orbiter (SPO) delivery to very high inclination heliocentric orbit, and multiple Near-Earth Asteroid (NEA) rendezvous (MNR). Together, they demonstrate the capability of near-term solar sails to achieve at least in the inner solar system almost any kind of heliocentric orbit within 10 years, from the Earth-co-orbital to the extremely inclined, eccentric and even retrograde. Noted as part of the MNR study, sail-propelled head-on retrograde kinetic impactors (RKI) go to this extreme to achieve the highest possible specific kinetic energy for the deflection of hazardous asteroids.At DLR, the experience gained in the development of deployable membrane structures leading up to the successful ground deployment test of a (20 m)², i.e., 20 m by 20 m square solar sail at DLR Cologne in 1999 was revitalized and directed towards a 3-step small spacecraft development line from as-soon-as-possible sail deployment demonstration (Gossamer-1) via in-flight evaluation of sail attitude control actuators (Gossamer-2) to an envisaged proving-the-principle flight in the Earth-Moon system (Gossamer-3). First, it turned the concept of solar sail deployment on its head by introducing four separable Boom Sail Deployment Units (BSDU) to be discarded after deployment, enabling lightweight 3-axis stabilized sailcraft. By 2015, this effort culminated in the ground-qualified technology of the DLR Gossamer-1 deployment demonstrator Engineering Qualification Model (EQM). For mission types using separable payloads, such as SPO, MNR and RKI, design concepts can be derived from the BSDU characteristic of DLR Gossamer solar sail technology which share elements with the separation systems of asteroid nanolanders like MASCOT. These nano-spacecraft are an ideal match for solar sails in micro-spacecraft format whose launch configurations are compatible with ESPA and ASAP secondary payload platforms.Like any roadmap, this one contained much more than the planned route from departure to destination and the much shorter distance actually travelled. It is full of lanes, narrow and wide, detours and shortcuts, options and decision branches. Some became the path taken on which we previously reported. More were explored along the originally planned path or as new sidings in search of better options when circumstance changed and the project had to take another turn. But none were dead ends, they just faced the inevitable changes when roadmaps face realities and they were no longer part of the road ahead. To us, they were valuable lessons learned or options up our sleeves. But for future sailors they may be on their road ahead.     

Status of solar sail technology within NASA

In the early 2000s, NASA made substantial progress in the development of solar sail propulsion systems for use in robotic science and exploration of the solar system. Two different 20-m solar sail systems were produced. NASA has successfully completed functional vacuum testing in their Glenn Research Center’s Space Power Facility at Plum Brook Station, Ohio. The sails were designed and developed by Alliant Techsystems Space Systems and L’Garde, respectively. The sail systems consist of a central structure with four deployable booms that support each sail. These sail designs are robust enough for deployment in a one-atmosphere, one-gravity environment and are scalable to much larger solar sails – perhaps as large as 150 m on a side. Computation modeling and analytical simulations were performed in order to assess the scalability of the technology to the larger sizes that are required to implement the first generation of missions using solar sails. Furthermore, life and space environmental effects testing of sail and component materials was also conducted.     

基于组态建模的航天器姿轨控数学仿真系统

数学仿真是研究航天器姿态轨道控制系统常用的手段,目前常用人工编程的方式建模,花费时间长且软件的可读性、可维护性较差.提出一套基于组态建模的航天器姿态轨道控制仿真系统,该系统通用性强、可支持自动建模及代码生成.仿真实例表明,该系统模块化、自动化程度较高,大大提高了研究人员的工作效率.     

Solar sails for perturbation relief: Application to asteroids

A major cause of spacecraft orbital variation comes from natural perturbations, which, in close proximity of a body, are dominated by its non-spherical nature. For small bodies, such as asteroids, these effects can be considerable, given their uneven (and uncertain) mass distribution. Solar sail technology is proposed to reduce or eliminate the net secular effects of the irregular gravity field on the orbit. Initially, a sensitivity analysis will be carried out on the system which will show high sensitivity to changes in initial conditions. This presents a challenge for optimisation methods which require an initial guess of the solution. As such, the Genetic Algorithm (GA) is proposed as the preferred optimisation method as this requires no initial guess from the user. A multi-objective optimisation is performed which aims to achieve a periodic orbit whilst also minimising the effort required by the sail to do so. Given the system sensitivity, the control law for one orbit is not necessarily applicable for any subsequent orbit. Therefore, a new method of updating the control law for subsequent orbits is presented, based on linearisation and use of a Control Transition Matrix (CTM). The techniques will later find application in a multiple asteroid rendezvous mission with a solar sail as the primary propulsion system.