America at the threshold : America's space exploration initiative

This is the Executive Summary of the 182-page report of the Synthesis Group, which was established in May 1990 by US Vice President Dan Quayle and NASA Administrator Richard Truly. The Group's purpose was to assess and synthesize suggestions for how to accomplish the Space Exploration Initiative (SEI) proposed by President George Bush in July 1989; to suggest several significantly different approaches to human exploration of the solar system; and to identify key technologies required for such exploration. The recommendations of the report are expected to form the basis for several years of study by the USA and, potentially, other countries, before a particular strategy for SEI is selected.     

How shall we live in space? Culture, law and ethics in spacefaring society

The US civilian space program is focused on planning for a new round of human missions beyond Earth orbit, to realize a ‘vision’ for exploration articulated by President George W. Bush. It is important to examine this ‘vision’ in the broader context of the global enterprise of 21st century space exploration. How will extending a human presence into the Solar System affect terrestrial society and culture? What legal, ethical and other value systems should govern human activities in space? This paper will describe the current environment for space policy making and possible frameworks for future space law, ethics and culture. It also proposes establishment of a World Space Conference to aid deliberations on the above.     

President of Turkmenistan Receives the Head of CASC

Adelegation led by CASC President Ma Xingrui visited Turkmenistan on August 8. President of Turkmenistan Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov received the delegation in a warm, friendly atmosphere. President Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov highly praised the remarkable achievements of China in the past 50 years. He said that exploration     

The US civil space sector: alternate futures

The initiation of a new vision for exploration, as articulated by US President George W. Bush on 14 January 2004, has excited much interest. This article analyzes the dynamics and potential for changes in the processes and participants in future space policy and space exploration activities. It examines a range of possible alternative paths for NASA and the US government's space exploration activities, the international space community and the private sector in the articulation and pursuit of future space exploration endeavors. It concludes that the new vision for exploration brings about both an opportunity and indeed a necessity for movement towards new and innovative methods and institutions for the effective conduct of multidimensional and multilateral space exploration activities in the future.     

Return to the Moon: A sustainable strategy

On 14 January 2004 President George Bush announced his vision for space exploration, to include a human return to the Moon. He argued that, with a moderate increase in NASA's annual expenditure, such a return was possible. This paper is an exploration of how the President's space initiative can be realised on an international co-operative basis along similar lines to those already existing with the international space station (ISS). By abandoning the concept of a lunar landing as the major goal of a lunar programme, the initiative is made feasible. The three-stage plan here presented meshes with the currently evolving plans for the US space initiative to provide a realistic, affordable and sustainable strategy for manned lunar exploration. It represents a significant opportunity for the USA to unite and lead the world on this grand, civilisation defining adventure.     

A new paradigm for international cooperation in space exploration

In announcing a new Vision for the US space program, President George Bush committed the USA to “a long-term human and robotic program to explore the solar system”, via a return to the Moon, leading to exploration of Mars and other destinations. He also stated that other nations would be invited to join the vision. Many other nations have, or are developing, ‘exploration visions’ of their own. The potential for international cooperation therefore exists, both at the vision and program/project levels. This paper, based on Working Group discussions as part of an AIAA space cooperation workshop,¹ presents an approach for maximizing the return on all global investments in space exploration. It proposes an international coordination mechanism through which all these various national activities could be integrated into an inherently global enterprise for space exploration, a ‘virtual program of programs’. Within the context of the coordination, individual activities would utilize the full range of cooperative mechanisms for implementation. A significant benefit of this mode of conducting cooperation is that it would not require the negotiation of complex overarching international agreements as a precondition for initiating international activity.     

The International Space Station: a pathway to the future

Nearly six years after the launch of the first International Space Station element, and four years after its initial occupation, the United States and our 6 international partners have made great strides in operating this impressive Earth orbiting research facility. This past year we have done so in the face of the adversity of operating without the benefit of the Space Shuttle. In his January 14, 2004, speech announcing a new vision for America's space program, President Bush affirmed the United States' commitment to completing construction of the International Space Station by 2010. The President also stated that we would focus our future research aboard the Station on the long-term effects of space travel on human biology. This research will help enable human crews to venture through the vast voids of space for months at a time. In addition, ISS affords a unique opportunity to serve as an engineering test bed for hardware and operations critical to the exploration tasks. NASA looks forward to working with our partners on International Space Station research that will help open up new pathways for future exploration and discovery beyond low Earth orbit. This paper provides an overview of the International Space Station Program focusing on a review of the events of the past year, as well as plans for next year and the future.     

Creating a productive international partnership in the Vision for Space Exploration

When US President George W. Bush on 14 January 2004 announced a new US “Vision for Space Exploration”, he called for international participation in “a journey, not a race”, a call received with skepticism and concern elsewhere. But, after a slow start in implementing this directive, during 2006 NASA has increased the forward momentum of action on the program and of discussions on international cooperation in exploring “the Moon, Mars, and beyond”. There are nevertheless a number of significant top-level issues that must be addressed if a cooperative approach to human space exploration is to be pursued. These include the relationship between utilization of the ISS and the lunar exploration plans, integration of potential partners’ current and future capabilities into the exploration plans, and the evolving space-related intentions of other countries.     

Rethinking national and global security: The role of space-based observations

In 1955 US President Eisenhower made his Open Skies proposal to the USSR, suggesting an exchange of blueprints showing the location of military installations in the two countries. The proposal was rejected at the time, but today the proliferation of remote sensing technology, along with interrelated security concerns, suggests that the time has come to rethink and update the concept. In this paper the author explains his recent proposal to the US Congress that a national commission be established to explore how information gathered by civilian remote sensing satellites could increase international security and stability without jeopardizing national defence.     

The explorer's complex

It is time to think about the rationales of space exploration, more than 50 years after the beginning of human space flight. Between J.F. Kennedy words (“landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth”) and the Mars One, what means today the dangers of exploration, or the concept of “representative of mankind” applied to the astronauts? Beyond the financial, technical and human risks, exploration, and today space exploration, belongs always to the human identity, the way to confront human nature (especially imagination) to the reality of time and space.     

Trends in the global space arena – Impact on Africa and Africa's response

Since the establishment of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Exploration and Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) in 1959, many actions that affect the advancement of the space frontier have been taken, within and outside COPUOS, in the interest of the global community, but without much input from Africa. Yet a number of African countries have joined those with assets in space, albeit without the necessary infrastructure on the ground. These actions vary in scope, in importance and in participation; however, they affect us all. Examples include the legal instruments that are in operation today for the exploration and peaceful uses of outer space, sustainability of the outer space environment and the Global Exploration Strategy– Framework for Coordination (GES–FC), conceived by 14 spacefaring nations; this laid out the details needed for an active global space exploration programme. This paper reflects on existing space-related regional cooperation arrangements at the inter-governmental level, including the African Leadership Conference on Space Science and Technology for Sustainable Development (ALC). Noting that, despite UN General Assembly endorsement of the need for developing countries to have access to the International Space Station (ISS), almost all in Africa have not, it asks what Africa might gain from such an experience. The paper concludes with an examination of where and why Africa needs to focus its immediate space-related efforts – on the ground here on Earth or in outer space?     

Humans and robots: hand in grip

As we move boldly forward into the 21st century, there has rarely been a more exciting time in which to contemplate the future of space exploration. The President of the United States has made a new and ambitious commitment to exploration of the solar system and beyond. Robotic partners will play a vital role in ensuring that the Vision is truly "sustainable and affordable". Relevant science and technology will be discussed with particular emphasis on expertise from NASA Ames Research Center of which the author is Director. The likely evolution of the balance between human explorers and robotic explorers will be addressed.     

What do nations want from international collaboration for space exploration?

From 2006 to 2007 14 space agencies developed a Global Exploration Strategy outlining the rationales, goals, and timelines for space exploration. As more nations gain support for exploration programs and begin executing missions, the informal meetings of the Global Exploration Strategy ‘partners’ should be formalized through the establishment of a new international collaboration mechanism for space exploration. This paper outlines a set of desirable criteria a new collaboration mechanism should meet to encourage participation by the major space powers. The criteria were developed by synthesizing information from interviews with space agency representatives, government representatives, and space policy professionals from 10 of the Global Exploration Strategy countries. The criteria give an insight into the current requirements for international collaboration in space exploration.     

President Obama’s National Space Policy: A change in tone and a focus on space sustainability

The major features of President Obama’s new US space policy are discussed and particular aspects are compared with those of the previous Bush policy. In many cases there are similarities of substance but the tone of the latest policy is more outward looking and inclusive, with a far greater emphasis on cooperation, both internationally and with the private sector. And while some complain that the policy does not sufficiently emphasize US leadership, a statement by President Obama on the day of its release makes clear that this remains a paramount goal. Serious questions remain, however, about implementation of the new policy, particularly where it requires substantial government funding such as human spaceflight and the restructured weather/environmental satellite programs.     

International Space Station as a base camp for exploration beyond low Earth orbit

The idea for using the International Space Station (ISS) as a platform for exploration has matured in the past few years and the concept continues to gain momentum. ISS provides a robust infrastructure which can be used to test systems and capabilities needed for missions to the Moon, Mars, asteroids and other potential destinations. International cooperation is a critical enabler and ISS has already demonstrated successful management of a large multi-national technical endeavor. Systems and resources needed for expeditions can be aggregated and thoroughly tested at ISS before departure thus providing wide operational flexibility and the best assurance of mission success. A small part of ISS called an Exploration Platform (ISS-EP) can be placed in cislunar space providing immediate benefits and flexibility for future exploration missions.We will show how ISS and the ISS-EP can be used to reduce risk and improve the operational flexibility for missions beyond low Earth orbit. Life support systems and other technologies developed for ISS can be evolved and adapted to the ISS-EP and other exploration spacecrafts. New technology, such as electric propulsion and advanced life support systems can be tested and proven at ISS as part of an incremental development program. Commercial companies who are introducing transportation and other services will benefit with opportunities to contribute to the mission since ISS will serve as a focal point for the commercialization of low earth orbit services. Finally, we will show how the use of ISS provides immediate benefits to the scientific community because its capabilities are available today and certain critical aspects of exploration missions can be simulated.     

美国新型载人火星探测技术方案

文章概括介绍了＂发现号＂宇宙飞船的布局结构。然后详细介绍了飞船用于火星探测的两种着陆舱的具体设计方案以及载人火星探测的任务剖面。最后分析了＂发现号＂宇宙飞船火星探测方案的关键可行技术和诸多设计优点。     

Stepping stones toward global space exploration

Several nations are currently engaging in or planning for robotic and human space exploration programs that target the Moon, Mars and near-Earth asteroids. These ambitious plans to build new space infrastructures, transport systems and space probes will require international cooperation if they are to be sustainable and affordable. Partnerships must involve not only established space powers, but also emerging space nations and developing countries; the participation of these new space actors will provide a bottom-up support structure that will aid program continuity, generate more active members in the space community, and increase public awareness of space activities in both developed and developing countries. The integration of many stakeholders into a global space exploration program represents a crucial element securing political and programmatic stability. How can the evolving space community learn to cooperate on a truly international level while engaging emerging space nations and developing countries in a meaningful way? We propose a stepping stone approach toward a global space exploration program, featuring three major elements: (1) an international Earth-based field research program preparing for planetary exploration, (2) enhanced exploitation of the International Space Station (ISS) enabling exploration and (3) a worldwide CubeSat program supporting exploration. An international Earth-based field research program can serve as a truly global exploration testbed that allows both established and new space actors to gain valuable experience by working together to prepare for future planetary exploration missions. Securing greater exploitation of the ISS is a logical step during its prolonged lifetime; ISS experiments, partnerships and legal frameworks are valuable foundations for exploration beyond low Earth orbit. Cooperation involving small, low-cost missions could be a major stride toward exciting and meaningful participation from emerging space nations and developing countries. For each of these three proposed stepping stones, recommendations for coordination mechanisms are presented.     

Future robotic exploration using honeybee search strategy: Example search for caves on Mars

Autonomous control has an increasing role in Earth and Space based applications. High level autonomy can greatly improve planetary exploration and is, in many cases, essential. It has been suggested during the Mars cave exploration programme, that an effective way to explore a larger surface area would be the use of many, small and fully autonomous robots. However, there are many challenges to overcome if such a swarm exploration programme is to be implemented. This paper summarises these challenges and focuses on one of the most crucial one: strategy. Many effective group exploration behaviours can be observed in nature, most of which are optimised to work with agents that have limited capabilities as individuals. For this paper a computer program has been written to simulate the way bees search for new hives and investigate whenever it is an optimal method to search for cave entrances on Mars. It has been found that this method, using simple autonomous robots which can be constructed using available technologies, could greatly improve the speed and range of a planetary exploration mission. The simulation results show that 50 swarm robots can cover an area of over 300 meters square completely in 5 sols while they are searching for cave entrances and returning results to the Lander which is a major performance improvement on any previous mission. Furthermore areas of interests found by the explorers are sorted in order of importance automatically and without the need of computational analysis, hence larger quantities of data were collected from the more important areas. Therefore the system – just like a hive of bees – can make a complex decision easily and quickly to find the place which matches the required criteria best. Using a high performance search strategy such as the one described in this paper is crucial if we plan to search for important resources or even life on Mars and other bodies in the solar system.     

Space visions from a new generation

Through experiences at the International Space University's 1995 Summer Session, the authors became aware of generational differences of opinion with regard to visions for future space activities. The faculty members had expansionary visions of space exploration and colonization, while the students, having grown up in a very different environment, had concerns which centered around using space to improve life on Earth. This paper addresses possible explanations for these different perspectives. The visions of this younger generation are those which will shape the space policy of the future and are even beginning to shape it today.     

Lunar exploration and development--a sustainable model

A long-term goal of space exploration is the development of a lunar settlement that will not only be largely self-sufficient but also contribute to the economy of the Earth-Moon system. Proposals for lunar mining and materials processing developments, as well as tourism-based applications, have appeared in the literature for many years. However, so great are the technical and financial difficulties associated with sustained lunar development that, more than 30 years after the end of the Apollo programme, there have been no practical advances towards this goal. While this may soon be remedied by a series of proposed unmanned orbiters, landers and rovers, the philosophy of lunar exploration and development remains the same as it has for decades: conquer, exploit, and ignore the consequences. By contrasting the well-recognised problems of Earth orbital debris and the barely recognised issue of intentional spacecraft impacts on the lunar surface, this paper illustrates the need for a new model for lunar exploration and development. This new paradigm would assign a value to the lunar environment and provide a balance between protection and exploitation, creating, in effect, a philosophy of sustainable development for the Moon. It is suggested that this new philosophy should be an integral part of any future strategy for lunar colonisation.