Cosmic ray measurements at aircraft altitudes and comparison with predictions of computer codes.

Extensive measurements of dose exposure of aircrew have been carried out in recent years using passive detectors on subsonic and supersonic air routes by DIAS (Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies). Studies were based on measurement of LET spectra using nuclear recoils produced in CR-39 nuclear track detectors by high energy neutrons and protons. The detectors were calibrated using energetic heavy ions. Data obtained were compared with the predictions of the EPCARD and CARI-6 codes. Good agreement has been found between the experimental and theoretical values.     

Estimation of a cosmonaut's radiation hazard during long-term space missions on the basis of a generalized dosimetric function.

This paper presents a new concept of radiation hazard assessment for spacecraft crew members during long term space missions on the basis of a generalized dosimetric function. This new dosimetric function enables a complicated nature of space radiation exposure to be reduced to the conditions of a standard irradiation. It can be obtained on the basis of mean-tissue equivalent dose values calculated for each space radiation source and transmission coefficients describing the influence of the complex spatial and temporal distribution of the absorbed dose in the cosmonaut's body on the radiobiological effects. The combination of cosmic ionizing radiation with other non-radiation nature factors in flight can also be accounted for. In terms of the generalized dose, it is possible to assess the nature and extent of lowering a crew working capacity, as well as radiation risk, both during a flight and post flight period.     

基于PERT网络的航空弹药保障人员优化配置

针对航空弹药保障效率和可靠性要求高的问题,在分析保障流程的计划评审技术（PERT,Program Evaluation and Review Technique）网络图中各工序对任务完工影响程度的基础上,提取了工序关键度指标和重要度指标以及各方案下的按期完工概率,建立了保障人员配置方案评价指标体系,表示为评价函数形式.以基于蒙特卡洛方法的PERT网络仿真为核心,选择在遗传算法进化寻优框架下构建优化模型,该方法不仅得到了最优的保障人员配置方案,而且评估了需要注重的关键工序.算例实验证实了其有效性与实用性.      

Bounding the risk of crew loss following orbital debris penetration of the International Space Station at assembly stages 1J and 1E.

Orbital debris impacts on the International Space Station occur frequently. To date, none of the impacting particles has been large enough to penetrate manned pressurized volumes. We used the Manned Spacecraft Crew Survivability code to evaluate the risk to crew of penetrations of pressurized modules at two assembly stages: after Flight 1J, when the pressurized elements of Kibo, the Japanese Experiment Module, are present, and after Flight 1E, when the European Columbus Module is present. Our code is a Monte-Carlo simulation of impacts on the Station that considers several potential event types that could lead to crew loss. Among the statistics tabulated by the program is the probability of death of one or more crew members in the event of a penetration, expressed as the risk factor, R. This risk factor is dependent on details of crew operations during both ordinary circumstances and decompression emergencies, as well as on details of internal module configurations. We conducted trade studies considering these procedure and configuration details to determine the bounds on R at the 1J and 1E stages in the assembly sequence. Here we compare the R-factor bounds, and procedures could that reduce R at these stages.     

Calibration results obtained with Liulin-4 type dosimeters.

The Mobile Radiation Exposure Control System's (Liulin-4 type) main purpose is to monitor simultaneously the doses and fluxes at 4 independent places. It can also be used for personnel dosimetry. The system consists of 4 battery-operated 256-channel dosimeters-spectrometers. We describe results obtained during the calibrations of the spectrometers at the Cyclotron facilities of the University of Louvain, Belgium and of the National Institute of Radiological Sciences-STA, Chiba, Japan with protons of energies up to 70 MeV. The angular sensitivities of the devices are studied and compared with Monte-Carlo predictions. We also present the results obtained at the HIMAC accelerator with 500 MeV/u Fe ions and at the CERN high energy radiation reference fields. Records made during airplane flights are shown and compared with the predictions of the CARI-6 model.     

A parametric study of space radiation exposures to critical body organs for low earth orbit missions.

The geomagnetically-trapped and galactic cosmic radiation environments are two of the major sources of naturally-occurring space radiation exposure to astronauts in low earth orbit. The exposure is dependent primarily on altitude, spacecraft shielding, crew stay-times, and solar cycle effects for a 28.5 deg orbital inclination. Based on Space Shuttle experience, the calculated results of a parametric study are presented for several mission scenarios using a computerized anatomical man model and are compared with the NASA crew exposure limits for several critical body organs.     

Atmospheric dynamics and bioregenerative technologies in a soil-based ecological life support system: initial results from Biosphere 2.

Biosphere 2 is the first man-made, soil-based, bioregenerative life support system to be developed and tested. The utilization and amendment of local space resources, e.g. martian soil or lunar regolith, for agricultural and other purposes will be necessary if we are to minimize the requirement for Earth materials in the creation of long-term off-planet bases and habitations. Several of the roles soil plays in Biosphere 2 are 1) for air purification 2) as a key component in created wetland systems to recycle human and animal wastes and 3) as nutrient base for a sustainable agricultural cropping program. Initial results from the Biosphere 2 closure experiment are presented. These include the accelerated cycling rates due to small reservoir sizes, strong diurnal and seasonal fluxes in atmospheric CO2, an unexpected and continuing decline in atmospheric oxygen, overall maintenance of low levels of trace gases, recycling of waste waters through biological regeneration systems, and operation of an agriculture designed to provide diverse and nutritionally adequate diets for the crew members.     

空间站乘员睡眠区二氧化碳聚集现象

为了分析乘员在没有良好通风的压力舱内停留时,呼出CO₂的聚集过程并评估其可能导致的医学危害,建立了乘员在特定空间站睡眠舱的计算流体动力学模型,对乘员在睡眠区的呼吸过程进行了非稳态模拟.模拟中乘员的CO₂呼出浓度和肺通气量根据生理实验随CO₂吸入浓度变化.通过模拟给出了睡眠区典型位置处CO₂分压随时间的变化规律.最后提出了无通风条件下乘员在睡眠区停留的最大容许时间,睡眠区CO₂浓度监测仪的布置原则和类似情况下为保障乘员生命安全可采取的一些措施.      

火箭空中爆炸冲击波峰值超压预测方法

研究火箭空中爆炸冲击波参数预测方法对于乘员舱的安全评估具有重要意义。为了探究火箭空中爆炸时飞行高度对峰值超压的影响,获取冲击波参数快速预测方法,利用ANSYS/LS-DYNA有限元软件对火箭飞行至0~20 km高度爆炸进行了有限元仿真分析。结果表明,作用于乘员舱的冲击波峰值超压随飞行高度的增加而快速减小。火箭空中爆炸冲击波压强衰减系数与飞行高度之间的关系服从二次函数衰减。在此基础上,提出了考虑高度效应的火箭空中爆炸冲击波峰值超压预测公式,可为乘员舱的快速危害性评估以及防护研究提供一定参考。      

载人航天器空气质量模糊综合评价灰关联分析

中长期载人航天器舱室为密闭环境,空气污染严重,极大影响了航天员的健康,有必要对该问题进行全面研究,提出新的空气质量评价方法评价舱室内的空气质量.在首次确定舱室单微量污染成分的分级模糊隶属度函数的基础上,提出采用模糊综合评价的灰关联分析方法评价中长期载人航天器舱室空气质量.该评价方法结合了模糊评价和灰色评价的优点,同时给出模糊分级结论和关联度分析结果,能反映舱室内空气质量状况及其变化规律.分析表明:评价结果信息含量大,能较好地反映载人航天器舱室内实际的空气质量状况,也能用于评价净化装置的工作性能.     

Adaptive response studies may help choose astronauts for long-term space travel.

Long-term manned exploratory missions are planned for the future. Exposure to high-energy neutrons, protons and high charge and energy particles during a deep space mission, needs protection against the detrimental effects of space radiation. It has been suggested that exposure to unpredictable extremely large solar particle events would kill the astronauts without massive shielding. To reduce this risk to astronauts and to minimize the need for shielding, astronauts with highest significant adaptive responses should be chosen. It has been demonstrated that some humans living in very high natural radiation areas have acquired high adaptive responses to external radiation. Therefore, we suggest that for a deep space mission the adaptive response of all potential crew members be measured and only those with high adaptive response be chosen. We also proclaim that chronic exposure to elevated levels of radiation can considerably decrease radiation susceptibility and better protect astronauts against the unpredictable exposure to sudden and dramatic increase in flux due to solar flares and coronal mass ejections.     

Approaches to radiation guidelines for space travel.

There are obvious risks in space travel that have loomed larger than any risk from radiation. Nevertheless, NASA has maintained a radiation program that has involved maintenance of records of radiation exposure, and planning so that the astronauts' exposures are kept as low as possible, and not just within the current guidelines. These guidelines are being reexamined currently by NCRP Committee 75 because new information is available, for example, risk estimates for radiation-induced cancer and about the effects of HZE particles. Furthermore, no estimates of risk or recommendations were made for women in 1970 and must now be considered. The current career limit is 400 rem to the blood forming organs. The appropriateness of this limit and its basis are being examined as well as the limits for specific organs. There is now considerably more information about age-dependency for radiation effects and this will be taken into account. In 1973 a committee of the National Research Council made a separate study of HZE particle effects and it was concluded that the attendant risks did not pose a hazard for low inclination near-earth orbit missions. Since that time work has been carried out on the so-called microlesions caused by HZE particles and on the relative carcinogenic effect of heavy ions, including iron. A remaining question is whether the fluence of HZE particles could reach levels of concern in missions under consideration. Finally, it is the intention of the committee to indicate clearly the areas requiring further research.     

Minimizing space radiation exposure during extra-vehicular activity

Continued assembly of the International Space Station (ISS) requires numerous extra-vehicular activities (EVAs). Prudent radiological safety practices require minimizing additional exposures to crewmen during these periods. The spatial distribution of the “normal” trapped proton and electron radiation sources in low Earth orbit is strongly governed by the geomagnetic field. It is possible to use ISS trajectory information to estimate crew exposures during EVAs and to identify periods that can result in minimal EVA crew exposures through avoidance of these trapped radiation regions. Such exposure minimization planning can also accommodate the unforeseen development of a solar proton event. An EVA exposure estimation tool, EVADOSE, is described and applied to various EVA exposure scenarios. Procedures and parameters that influence EVA exposures are discussed along with techniques to minimize crew exposures.     

Radiation environment monitoring for manned missions to Mars.

In this paper a radiation monitoring system for manned Mars missions is described, based on the most recent requirements on crew radiation safety. A comparison is shown between the radiation monitoring systems for Earth-orbiting and interplanetary spacecraft, with similarities and differences pointed out and discussed. An operational and technological sketch of the chosen problem solving approach is also given.     

多舱段载人航天器CO2去除系统性能仿真分析

多舱段载人航天器通常由主控舱段利用舱间通风对组合体空气环境参数进行集中控制.利用Ecosimpro建立了一种多舱段载人航天器CO₂去除系统性能仿真分析模型,包括舱体模块、乘员模块、CO₂净化模块、舱间通风模块,并对三舱段载人航天器CO₂去除系统性能进行了计算分析.结果表明,当净化装置进风量为0.007 2 kg/s,非主控舱段驻留人数达到6人时,会造成非主控舱段CO₂分压超出700 Pa的指标上限.此时增大舱间通风量对降低非主控舱段CO₂分压的效果并不明显,有效的控制方式是增大净化装置进风量.当净化装置进风量增加至0.011 3 kg/s时,非主控舱段CO₂分压可降至700 Pa以下.该工作有助于加快载人航天器空气环境控制系统的设计和改进流程.     

Life support approaches for Mars missions.

Life support approaches for Mars missions are evaluated using an equivalent system mass (ESM) approach, in which all significant costs are converted into mass units. The best approach, as defined by the lowest mission ESM, depends on several mission parameters, notably duration, environment and consequent infrastructure costs, and crew size, as well as the characteristics of the technologies which are available. Generally, for the missions under consideration, physicochemical regeneration is most cost effective. However, bioregeneration is likely to be of use for producing salad crops for any mission, for producing staple crops for medium duration missions, and for most food, air and water regeneration for long missions (durations of a decade). Potential applications of in situ resource utilization need to be considered further.     

Development and research program for a soil-based bioregenerative agriculture system to feed a four person crew at a Mars base.

For humans to survive during long-term missions on the Martian surface, bioregenerative life support systems including food production will decrease requirements for launch of Earth supplies, and increase mission safety. It is proposed that the development of "modular biospheres"--closed system units that can be air-locked together and which contain soil-based bioregenerative agriculture, horticulture, with a wetland wastewater treatment system is an approach for Mars habitation scenarios. Based on previous work done in long-term life support at Biosphere 2 and other closed ecological systems, this consortium proposes a research and development program called Mars On Earth(TM) which will simulate a life support system designed for a four person crew. The structure will consist of 6 x 110 square meter modular agricultural units designed to produce a nutritionally adequate diet for 4 people, recycling all air, water and waste, while utilizing a soil created by the organic enrichment and modification of Mars simulant soils. Further research needs are discussed, such as determining optimal light levels for growth of the necessary range of crops, energy trade-offs for agriculture (e.g. light intensity vs. required area), capabilities of Martian soils and their need for enrichment and elimination of oxides, strategies for use of human waste products, and maintaining atmospheric balance between people, plants and soils.     

Materials trade study for lunar/gateway missions.

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) administrator has identified protection from radiation hazards as one of the two biggest problems of the agency with respect to human deep space missions. The intensity and strength of cosmic radiation in deep space makes this a 'must solve' problem for space missions. The Moon and two Earth-Moon Lagrange points near Moon are being proposed as hubs for deep space missions. The focus of this study is to identify approaches to protecting astronauts and habitats from adverse effects from space radiation both for single missions and multiple missions for career astronauts to these destinations. As the great cost of added radiation shielding is a potential limiting factor in deep space missions, reduction of mass, without compromising safety, is of paramount importance. The choice of material and selection of the crew profile play major roles in design and mission operations. Material trade studies in shield design over multi-segmented missions involving multiple work and living areas in the transport and duty phase of space mission's to two Earth-Moon co-linear Lagrange points (L1) between Earth and the Moon and (L2) on back side of the moon as seen from Earth, and to the Moon have been studied. It is found that, for single missions, current state-of-the-art knowledge of material provides adequate shielding. On the other hand, the choice of shield material is absolutely critical for career astronauts and revolutionary materials need to be developed for these missions. This study also provides a guide to the effectiveness of multifunctional materials in preparation for more detailed geometry studies in progress.     

Developing strategies for automated remote plant production systems: Environmental control and monitoring of the Arthur Clarke Mars Greenhouse in the Canadian High Arctic

The Arthur Clarke Mars Greenhouse is a unique research facility dedicated to the study of greenhouse engineering and autonomous functionality under extreme operational conditions, in preparation for extraterrestrial biologically-based life support systems. The Arthur Clarke Mars Greenhouse is located at the Haughton Mars Project Research Station on Devon Island in the Canadian High Arctic. The greenhouse has been operational since 2002. Over recent years the greenhouse has served as a controlled environment facility for conducting scientific and operationally relevant plant growth investigations in an extreme environment. Since 2005 the greenhouse has seen the deployment of a refined nutrient control system, an improved imaging system capable of remote assessment of basic plant health parameters, more robust communication and power systems as well as the implementation of a distributed data acquisition system. Though several other Arctic greenhouses exist, the Arthur Clarke Mars Greenhouse is distinct in that the focus is on autonomous operation as opposed to strictly plant production. Remote control and autonomous operational experience has applications both terrestrially in production greenhouses and extraterrestrially where future long duration Moon/Mars missions will utilize biological life support systems to close the air, food and water loops. Minimizing crew time is an important goal for any space-based system. The experience gained through the remote operation of the Arthur Clarke Mars Greenhouse is providing the experience necessary to optimize future plant production systems and minimize crew time requirements. Internal greenhouse environmental data shows that the fall growth season (July–September) provides an average photosynthetic photon flux of 161.09 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ (August) and 76.76 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ (September) with approximately a 24 h photoperiod. The spring growth season provides an average of 327.51 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ (May) and 339.32 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ (June) demonstrating that even at high latitudes adequate light is available for crop growth during 4–5 months of the year. The Canadian Space Agency Development Greenhouse [now operational] serves as a test-bed for evaluating new systems prior to deployment in the Arthur Clarke Mars Greenhouse. This greenhouse is also used as a venue for public outreach relating to biological life support research and its corresponding terrestrial spin-offs.