核热推进载人火星探测方案设计

针对载人火星探测任务,结合我国现有技术基础,提出我国载人火星探测方案,重点研究载人火星探测任务推进系统的设计。首先,综合考虑载人深空探测任务的约束,采用Pork-Chop图设计了适用于不同任务场景的转移轨迹;然后,参考我国空间站技术,基于核热推进系统设计了我国载人火星探测任务的飞船;最后,对核热推进系统的发动机台数和推力进行了优化,得到了适用于不同任务场景的最优推进系统组合方案。本文所研究内容为我国未来载人火星探测任务提供了有益参考。     

A preliminary assessment of an orbiter in the Haumean system: How quickly can a planetary orbiter reach such a distant target?

With the recent discoveries of planetary objects beyond Neptune and Pluto, the vast majority of all sizeable Solar System planetary objects lie now beyond Uranus, where insertion into orbit after a reasonably short travel is still not within the current capabilities of our spacecraft. Being able to go and stop at a transneptunian dwarf planet would represent a step stone for ambitious long-term goals. The pressure to send spacecraft to these bodies will grow, as, among the tens or hundreds of large objects, some will emerge as high priorities for science and exploration missions. It is subsequently necessary to prepare the technologies required for such spacecraft. In addition, being able to achieve a fast journey to a distant object will benefit also missions to closer targets.Thales Alenia Space has carried out a preliminary parameter exploration of such a mission with a challenging target: an orbiter in the Haumean system. The main parameters are the characteristics of the propulsion and power system, as well as the masses of the spacecraft. The exploration has inferred the technological improvement needed for reaching these objects within a reasonable time.     

载人小行星探测的任务特点与实施途径探讨

介绍了载人小行星探测的发展现状,对目前美国基于"猎户座"飞船的载人小行星探测的概要方案进行了描述,包括探测器系统组成、运载火箭和飞行方案等内容。从速度增量、目标星引力等方面,分析了载人小行星探测的任务特点,并与载人火星探测、载人月球探测以及无人小行星探测的任务特点进行了比较。给出了载人小行星探测的实施途径建议,包括目标星选择、载人飞船系统设计等。讨论了其所涉及的推进、星际飞行安全保障、小行星表面行走等关键技术。研究结果可为我国开展载人深空探测提供参考。     

Comparative assessment of human–Mars-mission technologies and architectures

We compare a variety of mission scenarios to assess the strengths and weaknesses of options for Mars exploration. The mission design space is modeled along two dimensions: trajectory architectures and propulsion system technologies. We examine direct, semi-direct, stop-over, semi-cycler, and cycler architectures, and we include electric propulsion, nuclear thermal rockets, methane and oxygen production on Mars, Mars water excavation, aerocapture, and reusable propulsion systems in our technology assessment. The mission sensitivity to crew size, vehicle masses, and crew travel time is also examined. Many different combinations of technologies and architectures are applied to the same Mars mission to determine which combinations provide the greatest potential reduction in the injected mass to LEO. We approximate the technology readiness level of a mission to rank development risk, but omit development cost and time calculations in our assessment. It is found that Earth–Mars semi-cyclers and cyclers require the least injected mass to LEO of any architecture and that the discovery of accessible water on Mars has the most dramatic effect on the evolution of Mars exploration.     

High energy-density propulsion—reducing the risk to humans in planetary exploration

The potential benefits to humankind of space exploration are tremendous. Space is not only the final frontier but is also the next marketplace. The orbital space above Earth offers tremendous opportunities for both strategic assets and commercial development. The critical obstacle retarding the use of the space around the Earth is the lack of low cost access to orbit. Further out, the next giant leap for mankind will be the human exploration of Mars. Almost certainly within the next 30 years, a human crew will brave the isolation, the radiation, and the lack of gravity to walk on and explore the Red planet. Both of these missions will change the outlook and perspective of every human being on the planet. However, these missions are expensive and extremely difficult. Chemical propulsion has demonstrated an inability to achieve orbit cheaply and is a very high-risk option to accomplish the Mars mission. An alternative solution is to develop a high performance propulsion system. Nuclear propulsion has the potential to be such a system. The question will be whether humanity is willing to take on the challenge.     

火星载人探测中辐射防护综述

火星探测是人类太空探索的重要组成部分,火星载人探测中航天员的辐射安全问题是人们最为关心的问题。文章扼要介绍了美国/俄罗斯火星载人探测技术的发展过程,重点阐述了探测中的辐射环境、辐射效应以及国外探测结果;在此基础上,对火星探测中的辐射剂量进行了预示,提出了辐射防护建议。     

On a possibility of delivery of samples of primordial matter from asteroids of the main belt by a spacecraft with electric propulsion

The possibilities of an expedition to asteroids of the Main belt with the goal of obtaining samples of their matter using a spacecraft with a small-thrust electric propulsion, which is under development as a part of the Fobos-Grunt project, are considered. Obtaining matter from different regions of the Solar system is necessary in order to understand its origin and the structure of the Earth. Approximate estimates are made for the flights of spacecraft with electric propulsion and different power of solar batteries, and with perturbation maneuver near Mars for expeditions to the Main asteroid belt, including its middle part.     

Concept study on Deep Space Orbit Transfer Vehicle

In this paper, the concept of Orbit Transfer Vehicle for Deep Space Exploration (Deep Space OTV) is proposed, and its effectiveness and feasibility are discussed. Basic concept is the separation of two functions required for the deep space exploration, the transportation to the destination, and the exploration at the destination. Deep Space OTV is a spacecraft specialized for the transportation to the deep space destination. It is an expendable spacecraft propelled by solar electric propulsion. The payload of Deep Space OTV is Explorer, which is a spacecraft specialized for the exploration at the deep space destination. The effectiveness of the concept is discussed qualitatively, focused on the merits of the separations of two functions. The feasibility of Deep Space OTV is discussed based on the conceptual design of the spacecraft and its applicability to deep space missions. Several deep space missions are modeled and the payload capacity of Deep Space OTV is estimated. The missions include Asteroid rendezvous, Mars orbiter, Lunar lander, and so on.     

Concept study on Deep Space Orbit Transfer Vehicle

In this paper, the concept of Orbit Transfer Vehicle for Deep Space Exploration (Deep Space OTV) is proposed, and its effectiveness and feasibility are discussed. Basic concept is the separation of two functions required for the deep space exploration, the transportation to the destination, and the exploration at the destination. Deep Space OTV is a spacecraft specialized for the transportation to the deep space destination. It is an expendable spacecraft propelled by solar electric propulsion. The payload of Deep Space OTV is Explorer, which is a spacecraft specialized for the exploration at the deep space destination. The effectiveness of the concept is discussed qualitatively, focused on the merits of the separations of two functions. The feasibility of Deep Space OTV is discussed based on the conceptual design of the spacecraft and its applicability to deep space missions. Several deep space missions are modeled and the payload capacity of Deep Space OTV is estimated. The missions include Asteroid rendezvous, Mars orbiter, Lunar lander, and so on.     

核热推进反应堆燃料元件发展概述

深空探测作为我国航天领域未来的重要任务之一,需要性能更高的推进系统提供动力。核热推进系统具有高比冲、大推力、长运行寿命、可重复启动等优点,可为未来深空探测任务提供可靠的动力支撑。经过了60多年的发展,核热推进固态堆芯燃料元件被研制出了多种类型,如六棱柱石墨基燃料元件、扭曲条带燃料元件、六棱柱金属陶瓷燃料元件、球形包覆颗粒燃料元件、MITEE型燃料元件、SLHC型燃料元件、Grooved Ring型燃料元件等。总结归纳了核热推进固态堆芯燃料元件的发展状况,提出了发展核热推进固态堆芯燃料元件的关键技术,可为我国核热推进系统燃料元件的研制提供借鉴。     

火星探测器推进系统初步设想

火星探测是深空探测的重要内容之一,全面了解和掌握火星探测器的特点对进行火星探测具有重要意义.本文分析了国外火星探测器推进系统的系统组成和工作原理,介绍了我国火星探测器推进系统的初步设计方案,结合工程应用现状,提出了火星探测器推进系统的关键技术.     

Mars scientific investigations as a precursor for human exploration.

In the past two years, NASA has begun to develop and implement plans for investigations on robotic Mars missions which are focused toward returning data critical for planning human missions to Mars. The Mars Surveyor Program 2001 Orbiter and Lander missions will mark the first time that experiments dedicated to preparation for human exploration will be carried out. Investigations on these missions and future missions range from characterization of the physical and chemical environment of Mars, to predicting the response of biology to the Mars environment. Planning for such missions must take into account existing data from previous Mars missions which were not necessarily focused on human exploration preparation. At the same time, plans for near term missions by the international community must be considered to avoid duplication of effort. This paper reviews data requirements for human exploration and applicability of existing data. It will also describe current plans for investigations and place them within the context of related international activities.     

[Interior] Configuration options,habitability and architectural aspects of the transfer habitat module (THM) and the surface habitat on Mars (SHM)/ESA's AURORA human mission to Mars (HMM) study

This paper discusses the findings for [Interior] configuration options, habitability and architectural aspects of a first human spacecraft to Mars.In 2003 the space architecture office LIQUIFER was invited by the European Space Agency's (ESA) AURORA Program committee to consult the scientists and engineers from the European Space and Technology Center (ESTEC) and other European industrial communities with developing the first human mission to Mars, which will take place in 2030, regarding the architectural issues of crewed habitats.The task was to develop an interior configuration for a transfer vehicle (TV) to Mars, especially a transfer habitation module (THM) and a surface habitat module (SHM) on Mars. The total travel time Earth—Mars and back for a crew of six amounts to approximately 900 days. After a 200-day-flight three crewmembers will land on Mars in the Mars excursion vehicle (MEV) and will live and work in the SHM for 30 days. For 500 days before the 200-day journey back the spacecraft continues to circle the Martian orbit for further exploration. The entire mission program is based on our present knowledge of technology. The project was compiled during a constant feedback-design process and trans-disciplinary collaboration sessions in the ESA-ESTEC concurrent design facility.Long-term human space flight sets new spatial conditions and requirements to the design concept. The guidelines were developed from relevant numbers and facts of recognized standards, interviews with astronauts/cosmonauts and from analyses about habitability, sociology, psychology and configuration concepts of earlier space stations in combination with the topics of the individual's perception and relation of space.Result of this study is the development of a prototype concept for the THM and SHM with detailed information and complete plans of the interior configuration, including mass calculations. In addition the study contains a detailed explanation of the development of the Design process including all suggested design and configuration options.     

Societal imperatives and the need for space nuclear power and propulsion systems

The development and exploitation of nuclear power and propulsion represent certain didactic imperatives for human civilization. Among these are economic, epistemological, moral and commercial propositions. Developing space nuclear power and propulsion represents one future; the choice of not to pursue the course barring some breakthrough in physics represents a dramatically different future. The author argues that the time is now fortuitous for deployment and operation of nuclear propulsion and power, primarily nuclear electric propulsion, at significant levels, employing figures of merit that transcend simple cost models used to justify nuclear power sources in the past. The proposition is examined, in the light of US and UN restrictions, to ascertain how best to proceed. The author argues that viewpoints of certain vocal albeit uninformed public interest groups are typically self-serving and generally categorically incorrect; it can be asserted that these same groups do not truly represent the public interest at all. It is, therefore, necessary to present an even-handed assessment of both sides of the argument to determine the virtues and liabilities of embarking on such a developmental path. Given the imperatives mentioned, the author argues that nuclear power and propulsion for space systems is a societal necessity.     

核火箭原理、发展及应用

人类在不懈地对浩瀚的宇宙进行着探索,而强劲的推力是人类探索宇宙的关键。化学火箭在人类宇宙探索活动中书写了一页又一页的华丽篇章,现今在人类新的探索使命下,出现了激光、太阳能、微波、核热能等新的推进技术。在这些技术中,核火箭推进无疑是人类继续探索太空最有希望的技术之一。对核火箭的原理、发展状况以及应用前景进行了介绍。     

Mars Direct: Humans to the red planet by 1999

“Mars Direct”, is an approach to the space Exploration Initiative that allows for the rapid initiation of manned Mars exploration, possibly as early as 1999. The approach does not require any on-orbit assembly or refueling or any support from the Space Station or other orbital infrastructure. Furthermore, the Mars Direct plan is not merely a “flags and footprints” one-shot expedition, but puts into place immediately an economical method of Earth-Mars transportation, real surface exploratory mobility, and significant base capabilities that can evolve into a mostly self-sufficient Mars settlement. This paper presents both the initial and evolutionary phases of the Mars Direct plan. In the initial phase, only chemical propulsion is used, sendig 4 persons on conjunction class Mars exploratory missions. Two heavy lift booster launches are required to support each mission. The first launch delivers an unfueled Earth Return Vehicle (ERV) to the martian surface, where it fills itself with methane/oxygen bipropellant manufactured primarily out of indigenous resources. After propellant production is completed, a second launch delivers the crew to the prepared site, where they conduct regional exploration for 1.5 years and then return directly to Earth in the ERV. In the second phase of Mars Direct, nuclear thermal propulsion is used to cut crew transit times in half, increase cargo delivery capacity, and to create the potential for true global mobility through the use of CO₂ propelled ballistic hopping vehicles (“NIMFs”). In this paper we present both phases of the Mars Direct plan, including mission architecture, vehicle designs, and exploratory strategy leading to the establishment of a 48 person permanent Mars base. Some speculative thoughts on the possibility of actually colonizing Mars are also presented.     

A Planetary Park system for Mars

The increasing robotic exploration of Mars and eventual human exploration and settlement of that planet threatens to have a significant environmental impact on scientifically important sites and sites of natural beauty in the form of contamination with micro-organisms and spacecraft parts. By definition, the sites that we might wish to preserve are likely to be those to which robots and humans will be sent. An interventionist step to protect pristine regions of Mars with the formation of a Planetary Park system is proposed. Possible locations for the first seven Planetary Parks are suggested. Landing of unmanned craft in these parks would be forbidden. Although global dust storms can carry microorganisms across the planetary surface, the regulations suggested for these parks will allow for the maximum level of preservation. We also suggest that the Planetary Park system could be applied to the Moon.     

Public perceptions of the Mars sample return program

In 2014 NASA may bring back a sample of Mars rocks, soil and atmosphere to Earth. The most likely location for returning this sample will be somewhere in the central USA. The purpose of the project is to understand the history of Mars; the samples may also reveal evidence of previous or existing life on Mars. Confirmation of this possibility would rank as one of the most profound discoveries in human history, yet to date it is unclear how the public in the USA actually views the mission. This study addresses this issue by examining the views of 70 residents of Cincinnati, OH. These perceptions are examined in light of the conceptual ideas and theories presented in the risk perception and communication literatures. While respondents were generally favourable towards a Mars sample return mission, and largely unworried by possible risks, they did have concerns about the use of plutonium for electrical propulsion and were somewhat ill-informed about the issues.     

Magnetobraking for Mars return vehicles

It is proposed that magnetobraking may be used to dissipate hyperbolic excess velocity from a spacecraft returning from Mars to Earth orbit. In magnetobraking, an electrodynamic tether is deployed from the spacecraft. The Earth's magnetic field produces a force on electrical current in the tether, which can be used to either brake or accelerate the spacecraft without expenditure of reaction mass. The peak acceleration on the Mars return is 0.007 m/s², and the amount of braking possible is dependent on the density and current-carrying capacity of the tether, but is independent of length. Since energy is produced as the spacecraft velocity decreases, no on-board power source is required. As the spacecraft approaches the Earth, the magnetic field increases and the power produced by the tether increases, reaching a maximum of about 800 W per kg of spacecraft mass at closest approach.     

NanoSail-D: A solar sail demonstration mission

In the early to mid-2000s, NASA made substantial progress in the development of solar sail propulsion systems. Solar sail propulsion uses the solar radiation pressure exerted by the momentum transfer of reflected photons to generate a net force on a spacecraft. To date, solar sail propulsion systems were designed for large robotic spacecraft. Recently, however, NASA has been investigating the application of solar sails for small satellite propulsion. The NanoSail-D is a subscale solar sail system designed for possible small spacecraft applications. The NanoSail-D mission flew on board the ill-fated Falcon Rocket launched August 2, 2008, and due to the failure of that rocket, never achieved orbit. The NanoSail-D flight spare is ready for flight and a suitable launch arrangement is being actively pursued. This paper will present an introduction solar sail propulsion systems and an overview of the NanoSail-D spacecraft.