Black hole accretion and X-ray spectra of QSOS

Changes in Eddington accretion ratios are thought to result in X-ray spectral index changes in Galactic binary black hole systems. Objects with higher Eddington ratios have softer X-ray spectra. Can we apply this result to much more massive black hole systems such as QSOs? If so, X-ray observations will give us valuable insight into the physics of QSOs. Among QSOs, X-ray spectral index is part of a large set of correlated optical and UV observational properties, especially optical Fe II and [O III] strengths in the Hβ region. To investigate whether this set of correlations is related to Eddington ratio, we use as probes, BALQSOs that have been suggested to be youthful super-accretors. We conducted infrared spectroscopy of the Hβ rest wavelength region for a sample of BALQSOs and compared line measurements with those for high and low redshift non-BAL QSOs. Hβ line widths and bolometric luminosity are used to calculate QSO black hole masses and Eddington ratios. Our results support the hypothesis that optical Fe II and [O III] line strengths are Eddington ratio indicators in QSO central engines. A possible explanation is that strong Fe II and weak [O III] indicate abundant cold gas that could fuel near Eddington accretion.     

Principal components in the PG-X-ray QSO sample

We have performed a spectral principal component analysis for a complete sample of 22 low redshift QSOs with spectra from Ly to H, and found three significant principal components, which account for 78% of the spectrum-to-spectrum variance. We present strong arguments that the first principal component represents the Baldwin effect, relating equivalent widths to the luminosity (i.e. accretion rate). The second component represents continuum variations, probably dominated by intrinsic reddening. The third principal component is directly related to broad emission-line width and X-ray spectral index, and therefore probably driven by Eddington accretion ratio, L/L_Edd. The third set of relationships tie directly to the optical Principal Component 1 found by Boroson and Green [Boroson, T., Green, R.F., Astrophys. J. Suppl. 80, 109, 1992 (BG92)], and are the primary cause of scatter in the Baldwin relationships.     

Reverberation time lags in the high luminosity quasar PG 1247+267

Virial estimates of the black hole mass in the center of AGNs, derived from single-epoch observations of luminosity and emission line widths, are now available for several thousands of objects at all redshifts and luminosities, so that studies of the cosmological evolution of the AGN mass function are becoming possible. These estimates are based on the empirical luminosity-size relation measured through reverberation mapping at low redshifts and luminosities. For this reason the spectrophotometric monitoring of 4 luminous quasars was started in 2003, with the 1.8 m telescope of the Asiago Observatory. To measure the reverberation time lag we adopt a method, recently introduced by Zu et al. (2011), which takes advantage of the available statistical information on variability autocorrelation and makes simple assumptions on the continuum-emission line transfer function. We present the estimate of the broad line region size for the quasar PG 1247+267, which is the most luminous object with reverberation measures to date. Virial products computed for C iv and C iii] emission lines provide consistent results. A possible flattening of the size-luminosity relation for C iv at high luminosity is suggested.     

High resolution science with high redshift galaxies

We summarize the high-resolution science that has been done on high redshift galaxies with Adaptive Optics (AO) on the world’s largest ground-based facilities and with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). These facilities complement each other. Ground-based AO provides better light gathering power and in principle better resolution than HST, giving it the edge in high spatial resolution imaging and high resolution spectroscopy. HST produces higher quality, more stable PSF’s over larger field-of-views in a much darker sky-background than ground-based AO, and yields deeper wide-field images and low-resolution spectra than the ground. Faint galaxies have steadily decreasing sizes at fainter fluxes and higher redshifts, reflecting the hierarchical formation of galaxies over cosmic time. HST has imaged this process in great structural detail to z  6, and ground-based AO and spectroscopy has provided measurements of their masses and other physical properties with cosmic time. Last, we review how the 6.5 m James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) will measure First Light, reionization, and galaxy assembly in the near–mid-IR after 2013.     

X-ray observations of black-hole accretion disks

Our current theoretical and observational understandings of the accretion disks around Galactic black-holes are reviewed. Historically, a simple phenomenological accretion disk model has been used to interpret X-ray observations. Although such a phenomenological interpretation is still useful, high quality X-ray data from contemporary instruments allow us to test more realistic accretion disk models. In a simple and ideal case, the standard optically thick accretion disk model is successful to explain observations, such that the inner disk radius is constant at three times the Schwarzschild radius over large luminosity variations. However, when disk luminosity is close to or exceeds the Eddington luminosity, the standard disk model breaks, and we have to consider the “slim disk” solution in which radial energy advection is dominant. Recent observations of Ultra-luminous X-ray sources (ULXs), which may not be explained by the standard disk model, strongly suggest the slim disk solution. We compare theoretical X-ray spectra from the slim disk with observed X-ray spectra of ULXs. We have found that the slim disk model is successful to explain ULX spectra, in terms of the massive stellar black-holes with several tens of solar mass and the super-Eddington mass accretion rates. In order to explain the large luminosities (>10⁴⁰ ergs s⁻¹) of ULXs, “intermediate black-holes” (>100M) are not required. Slim disks around massive stellar black-holes of up to several tens of solar mass would naturally explain the observed properties of ULXs.     

Luminous star-forming galaxies in the SDSS-GALEX database

We use the combined photometric GALEX + SDSS database to look for populations of luminous blue star-forming galaxies. These were initially identified from such a sample at redshifts near 0.4, using SDSS spectra. We make use of the NUV, g, and i colour index previously defined in our previous paper, to separate stars and QSOs, to locate more of these unusual galaxies, to fainter limits. They are found in significant numbers in two different regions of the related colour-magnitude plot. Within these regions, we use the ensemble 7-colour photometry (FUV, NUV, u, g, r, i, z) to postulate the populations of blue star-forming galaxies at redshifts near 0.4 and 1.0, from a full photometric sample of over half a million.     

A study of a complete soft X-ray selected sample of AGN

We present preliminary results from analyses of hard X-ray and optical observations of a soft X-ray selected sample. We created a small but complete sample with 20 of the softest and brightest objects with low Galactic absorption from the ROSAT bright soft X-ray selected radio-quiet AGN sample. This sample consists of 10 narrow-line Seyfert 1 galaxies and 10 broad-line Seyfert galaxies. We analyze ASCA data in the 0.6–10 keV band and optical spectra from ground-based telescopes. We investigate the photon indices in the hard X-ray band, soft excesses in the ASCA band, and optical emission line properties. The photon indices in the 2–10 keV band are nominal for both narrow-line Seyfert 1 galaxies and broad-line Seyfert 1 galaxies in each class compared with other heterogeneous samples. All of the narrow-line Seyfert 1 galaxies show soft excesses, but this component seems to be less significant for broad-line Seyfert 1 galaxies. There seems to be a trend of steeper X-ray spectra to be accompanied by narrower Hβ for narrow-line Seyfert 1 galaxies, but this is not extended to the larger velocity width regime of broad-line Seyfert 1 galaxies, and no clear trend is seen among them.     

Ultra-luminous sources in nearby galaxies

This paper presents an update of what we have learned in the last year about the ULX phenomenon. New results are presented on radio emission from Holmberg II and a review is given on the recent X-ray data on timing and spectra. The new X-ray spectroscopic and optical imaging survey of nearby ULX with XMM allows us, for the first time, to place the average properties of these objects on a statistical basis. Direct examination of the sites of ULXs in nearby galaxies shows that 1/3 of them are not in or near star forming regions, indicating that a substantial fraction of ULX are not directly associated with young star formation. There are two ULX which have been identified with B stars as the optical counterparts on the basis of optical spectroscopy. Radio imaging of the Holmberg II ULX shows that it lies in a luminous extended radio source and that the radio emission is not beamed. A statistical study of ULX spectra in nearby galaxies shows that the ratio of ‘high state’ to ‘low state’ ULXs is 1:1 and that the high state objects, in general, are best fit with low temperature black bodies with a steep power law index. The objects with high state spectra are systematically more luminous than the objects with low state spectra consistent with the hypothesis that both are drawn from a population which shows state changes similar to those of black holes in the Milky Way. If this is true then the masses implied for the objects with the low state spectra are greater than 50M.     

Galaxies at the detection limits of deep X-ray surveys

The great sensitivities of the Chandra X-ray Observatory and XMM-Newton have allowed us to begin to explore the X-ray emission from galaxies at moderate to high redshift. By using the stacking method, we show that we can detect the ensemble emission from normal elliptical, spiral and irregular galaxies out to redshifts approaching unity. The average X-ray luminosity of these galaxy types can then be compared with the results of models of the evolution in the numbers of low-mass and high-mass X-ray binaries and can possibly be used to constrain models of star formation.     

Millimeter-wave continuum observation of high-z radio quasars

Millimeter-wave continuum observations of high redshift (z3) radio loud quasars (RLQs) and radio intermediate quasars (RIQs) have been performed with the 45 m telescope of the Nobeyama Radio Observatory. Sixteen RLQs with S_5GHz > 200 mJy and nine RIQs with 200 mJy > S_5GHz > 20 mJy were observed at four millimeter-wave frequencies. All the observed quasars have synchrotron spectra and their possible dust emission component is obscured by the synchrotron emission in millimeter-wave frequencies, which can be explained by their strong AGN activities. Observed quasars are classified into three spectral classes, according to their millimeter-wave spectral index as steep spectrum, millimeter turn over and extreme flat spectrum quasars. Extreme flat spectrum quasars have relatively flat spectra up to 150 GHz, where the rest frequency is higher than 600 GHz. This is an indication that the objects are in very young stage of quasar evolution and shows higher nuclear activity than lower redshift quasars. One of the QSOs, 2358+189 previously known as a RIQ, is found to have extreme flat spectrum, and is now classified as RLQs.     

Quasars and their emission lines as cosmological probes

Quasars are the most luminous sources in the Universe. They are currently observed out to redshift z≈7$z\approx 7$ when the Universe was less than one tenth of its present age. Since their discovery 50 years ago astronomers have dreamed of using them as standard candles. Unfortunately quasars cover a very large range (8 dex) of luminosity making them far from standard. We briefly review several methods that can potentially exploit quasars properties and allow us to obtain useful constraints on principal cosmological parameters. Using our 4D Eigenvector 1 formalism we have found a way to effectively isolate quasars radiating near the Eddington limit. If the Eddington ratio is known, under several assumptions it is possible to derive distance independent luminosities. We discuss the main statistical and systematic errors involved, and whether these “standard Eddington candles” can be actually used to constrain cosmological models.     

Obscured AGN and the X-ray background

There is growing evidence that the hard X-ray background (XRB) can be explained by a large population of obscured AGN. I review some of the results of recent deep X-ray surveys, and in particular I discuss the nature of the X-ray luminous emission-line galaxies which have emerged at the faintest X-ray fluxes. If obscured AGN do explain the XRB, a direct implication is that the majority of the energy produced by accretion in the universe is absorbed and not emitted directly. Deep submillimetre surveys with SCUBA have recently attracted a lot of attention, with the potential to allow us an unobscured view dust-enshrouded starformation at high redshift. It has generally been assumed that these sources are purely high redshift starforming galaxies, but if models for the XRB are correct then a significant fraction (∼20%) could contain a luminous AGN.     

How well do available data describe the distribution of galaxies in the nearby universe?

To study the distribution of galaxies in the Universe data on their positions magnitudes and redshifts are needed. A review of all large samples of galaxy counts, galaxy catalogues and redshift surveys as well as catalogues and redshifts of clusters is given. It is shown that the sky has been unevenly studied, the strongest asimmetry being between the Northern and Southern hemispheres. Particular attention is paid to the Zwicky near clusters. It is shown that only 14% have a well determined redshift and at least 28% are not single clusters but superposition of two or more groups.From an analysis of the available literature it appears that 1) there is more data about redshifts and positions of galaxies than are normally used. 2) The available data are far from uniform and complete.It is argued that a lot more new observations are needed before one can confidently draw conclusions about the structure of the Universe.     

X-ray broad line emission in Seyfert galaxies: Mrk 766 and NGC 4051

Long (>100 ks) observations of the bright Seyfert galaxies Mrk 766 and NGC 4051 have been obtained using XMM-Newton. The RGS 5–38 Å spectra reveal evidence of broad features. These can be modelled with relativistic emission lines coming from the immediate vicinity of a massive rotating black hole. Lines of OVIII, NVII and CVI are required to reproduce the spectrum of Mrk 766, whereas the spectrum of NGC 4051 can be modelled using a single, even broader OVIII line. Both Seyferts also exhibit broad iron line emission in the 2–8 keV range, and the data available thus far suggest that the strength of the low-energy emission lines and the strength of the iron line may be correlated.     

Some implications of high luminosity and fast variability in active galactic nuclei

An analysis of the variability timescale against bolometric luminosity for Active Galactic Nuclei shows that a number of sources violate the Eddington limit. The average ratio (L/L_E) is found to change according to group classification. Whilst Seyfert Galaxies have luminosites well within the Eddington limit, Quasars and BL Lac object tend to approach and exceed this limit. Furthermore, BL Lac objects may be further subdivided on the basis of their (L/L_E) ratio. The data on luminosity and variability timescale indicate the existence of two types of active galaxies, one having highly anisotropic emission, probably collimated into jets with pointing angles within few degrees to the line of sight, and the other relating to isotropic emission of photons from the nuclear region. The results are discussed in the light of the high γ-ray luminosity suggested by recent observations of active galaxies.     

IUE observations of cool stars

A summary of IUE results concerning late-type stars is presented. Observations show that high-temperature outer atmospheres, as indicated by N V, C IV emission at T ≈ 10⁵K, are generally present only in high-gravity (log g ? 2) stars. Objects with high-temperature emission tend not to exhibit cool circumstellar shells, and vice versa, although there are several transition objects, the hybrid atmosphere stars, which combine C IV emission with cool winds. Ultraviolet emission from stellar transition regions correlates well with chromospheric and X-ray emission. Transition-region line ratios indicate that many stars have differential emission measure distributions similar to the Sun's. Ultraviolet observations also give indications of important dynamical effects in low-gravity stars. Density diagnostics indicate extended chromospheres for some red giants and supergiants. In addition, the large widths of lines of high temperature ions in several luminous stars indicate supersonic motions.     

Bolometric luminosities and brightness temperatures of BL Lac Objects and FR I radio galaxies

To understand the connection among the subclasses of BL Lac Objects, FR I radio galaxies and Flat spectrum radio quasars (FSRQs), here the correlations of the bolometric luminosities with redshifts and brightness temperatures of these objects are studied. The bolometric luminosities vary linearly with redshifts, but few objects are scattered at high redshift. The bolometric luminosity versus brightness temperature distribution shows a correlation between these two components, except a few scattered objects, mostly RBLs. The bolometric luminosities and brightness temperatures of FR I radio galaxies with low redshift (<0.1) and low spectral index (α_rx < 0.75) are comparable to those of XBLs and those characteristics of FR I radio galaxies, with relatively high redshift (>0.2) and high spectral index, can be comparable with RBLs with low redshift (z < 0.5) and low bolometric luminosity. Those scattered RBLs with high redshifts (z > 0.5) are believed to be in complex environment with companion galaxies, most of these RBLs are still unresolved. The bolometric luminosity and brightness temperature of these scattered RBLs are comparable to those of quasars. The FSRQs are at high redshifts and bolometric luminosities and the brightness temperatures are also high relative to BL Lac Objects. These results support the FRI/BL Lac unification scheme. It suggests that, the FR I radio galaxies may be the parent populations of the BL Lac Objects, but it needs more investigation to confirm the unification of FR I radio galaxies, XBLs and RBLs.     

Development of an extreme ultraviolet imaging spectrometer for the BepiColombo mission

Extreme and far ultraviolet imaging spectrometers are proposed for the low-altitude orbiter of the BepiColombo mission. The UV instrument, consisting of the two spectrometers with common electronics, aims at measuring (1) emission lines from molecules, atoms and ions present in the Mercury’s tenuous atmosphere and (2) the reflectance spectrum of Mercury’s surface. The instrument pursues a complete coverage in UV spectroscopy. The extreme UV spectrometer covers the spectral range of 30–150 nm with the field of view of 5.0°, and the spectrum from 130 to 430 nm is obtained by the far UV spectrometer. The extreme UV spectrometer employs multi-layer coating technology to enhance its sensitivity at particular emission lines. This technology enables us to identify small ionospheric signatures such as He II (30.4 nm) and Na II (37.2 nm), which could not be detected with conventional optics.     

Cool luminous stars

A broad theme emerging from $\text{IUE}$ and $\text{Einstein}$ observations of cool stars is that magnetic fields control the structure and energy balance of the outer atmospheres of these stars. I summarize the phenomena associated with magnetic fields in the Sun and show that similar phenomena occur in cool luminous stars. High dispersion spectra are providing unique information concerning densities, atmospheric extension, and emission line widths. A recent unanticipated discovery is that the transition lines are redshifted (an antiwind) in β Dra (G2 Ib) and perhaps other stars, which I interpret as indicating downflows in closed magnetic flux tubes as are seen in the solar flux tubes above sunspots. Finally, I classify the G and K giants and supergiants into three groups — active stars, quiet stars, and hybrid stars — depending on whether their atmospheres are dominated by closed magnetic flux tubes, open field geometries, or a predominately open geometry with a few closed flux tubes embedded.     

The X-ray evolution of galaxies: implications for future X-ray observatories

The X-ray evolution of the luminosity of normal galaxies is primarily driven by the evolution of their X-ray binary populations. The imprints left by a cosmological evolution of the star formation rate (SFR) will cause the average X-ray luminosity of galaxies to appear higher in the redshift range 1–3. As reported by White and Ghosh [ApJ, 504 (1998) L31] the profile of X-ray luminosity with redshift can both serve as a diagnostic probe of the SFR profile and constrain evolutionary models for X-ray binaries. In order to observe the high redshift (z>3) universe in the X-ray band, it is necessary to avoid confusion from foreground field galaxies. We report on the predictions of these models of the X-ray flux expected from galaxies and the implications for the telescope parameters of future deep universe X-ray observatories.