Neutral upper atmospheres of Venus and Mars

Numerous measurements of the neutral upper atmosphere above 100 km have been made from spacecraft over Venus and over Mars. The Venus exospheric temperatures are unexpectedly low (less than 300°K near noon and less than 130°K near midnight). These very low temperatures may be partially caused by collisional excitation of CO₂ vibrational states by atomic oxygen and partially by eddy cooling. The Venus atmosphere is unexpectedly insensitive to solar EUV variability. On the other hand, the Martian dayside exospheric temperature varies from 150°K to 400°K over the 11-year solar cycle, where CO₂ 15-μm cooling may be less effective because of lower atomic oxygen mixing ratios. On Venus, temperature increases with altitude on the dayside (thermosphere), but decreases with altitude from 100 to 150 km on the nightside (cryosphere). However, dayside Martian temperatures near solar minimum for maximum planet-sun distance and low solar activity are essentially isothermal from 40 km to 200 km. During high solar activity, the thermospheric temperatures of Mars sharply increase. The Venus neutral upper atmosphere contains CO₂, O, CO, C, N₂, N, He, H, D and hot nonthermal H, O, C, and N, while the dayside Mars neutral upper atmosphere contains CO₂, O, O₂, CO, C, N₂, He, H, and Ar. There is evidence on Venus for inhibited day-to-night transport as well as superrotation of the upper atmosphere. Both atmospheres have substantial wave activity. Various theoretical models used to interpret the planetary atmospheric data are discussed.     

Dynamic and figure parameters of Venus and Mars

Parameters of the best-fitting tri-axial ellipsoids representing external equipotential surfaces of Venus and Mars have been determined from satellite data. The dynamic consequence of the equatorial flattening of Venus has been discussed from the point of view of the s.c. synodic resonance rotation. The major gravitational anomalies of Venus have been interpreted, space locations and magnitudes of anomalous masses determined and their contribution to the second zonal Stokes' constant in the gravitational potential computed. The conclusions were done: The figure of the aphroditoid is strange even if there is a relatively small polar flattening; an equatorial “disc” of Venus is enormous. Recent space data do not support hypothesis that the Earth controls the spin of Venus.     

The magnetic fields of Mercury,Venus and Mars

Just as clearly as Mariner 10 established that Mercury has an intrinsic magnetic field, the Pioneer Venus orbiter has established that Venus has no significant intrinsic field. This is perhaps the opposite of what might be expected. Mercury, a small planet might be expected to cool rapidly and its internal dynamo to cease, while Venus, which is almost as large as the Earth, should not have lost much heat. On the contrary the source of energy of the Mercury dynamo appears to be extant whereas that of Venus appears to be extinct.The existence of a Martian magnetic field is controversial. No unambiguous signature of a Martian magnetic field has been reported. If the field on the nightside of Mars is of planetary rather than solar origin the Russian Mars spacecraft observations indicate the Martian dipole lies near the planetary equator rather than its pole.     

Atmospheric pressure torque and axial rotation of Venus

The influence upon the axial spin rate of Venus of a ground pressure of atmospheric origin is investigated. This semi-diurnal sectorial pressure distribution leads to a deformation of the solid planet (pressure bulge). In addition to the classical (braking) torque due to the solar solid tide, other kinds of torques can possibly occur: the tidal torque upon the pressure bulge (braking), the pressure torque upon the pressure bulge itself (braking) and the pressure torque upon the tidal bulge (accelerating). The torque budget is estimated and shows that, for usual values of the phase delay angles of thermal origin or caused by internal friction, the main effect is to slow down the axial rotation of the planet.     

Structure of the atmospheres of Mars and Venus below 100 kilometers

The present state of knowledge of the structure of the atmospheres of Mars and Venus below 100 km is reviewed. Both atmospheres have been characterized to a remarkable degree, considering their remoteness from Earth. Mars' atmosphere is more variable, and less well defined. The variability is seasonal, diurnal, and latitude dependent, and also is strongly affected by atmospheric dust. Venus' atmosphere is less variable and better defined, as a result of numerous spacecraft missions. Mars' atmosphere is generally statically stable from the surface to 100 km, and its temperatures are controlled by radiative transfer moderated by vertical flow. Venus' lower atmosphere is stratified, with stable layers predominating. Its temperatures also are controlled by radiation and vertical motion. Thermal tidal motions occur in both atmospheres at about the same pressure levels, with larger amplitudes at Venus, consistent with the larger solar input at Venus.     

一种火星大气密度三维解析模型

根据火星大气数据库,建立了以高度和经纬度为输入的火星三维解析大气密度模型;在竖直方向上,采用分层指数模型;在水平方向上,将指数模型中的参考密度和参考高度视为经纬度的多项式函数,并通过最小二乘曲面拟合得到了多项式系数。相比传统的指数模型,三维指数模型不仅反映了火星大气密度随高度的变化规律,而且能够体现出大气密度在水平方向上的变化。与大气数据库相比,三维密度模型具有解析形式,计算速度快,仿真过程中只需存储简单的多项式系数即可实现密度的实时计算和调用,适用于地面实时仿真。     

火星大气进入段侧向预测校正制导律设计

火星大气进入段预测校正制导方法通常采用误差走廊来约束侧向运动,该方法只能满足侧向运动的末端约束,而无法实现对侧向运动过程约束的满足。将预测制导的方法引入侧向制导律设计中,该方法无需离线规划误差走廊,而是根据侧向运动中的相关约束,在线计算倾侧角反转时刻,从而同时满足侧向运动的末端约束与过程约束,并能够克服采用误差走廊可能导致的飞行器因频繁反转机动而使燃料过快消耗的问题。仿真结果表明:该侧向预测制导律不仅能满足开伞位置精度,同时也能实现对进入轨迹侧向运动的灵活规划。     

End-to-end trajectory design for a solar-sail-only pole-sitter at Venus,Earth, and Mars

The concept of a pole-sitter has been under investigation for many years, showing the capability of a low-thrust propulsion system to maintain a spacecraft at a static position along a planet’s polar axis. From such a position, the spacecraft has a view of the planet’s polar regions equivalent to that of the low- and mid-latitudes from geostationary orbit. Previous work has hinted at the existence of pole-sitters that would only require a solar sail to provide the necessary propulsive thrust if a slight deviation from a position exactly along the polar axis is allowed, without compromising on the continuous view of the planet’s polar region (a so-called quasi-pole-sitter). This paper conducts a further in-depth analysis of these high-potential solar-sail-only quasi-pole-sitters and presents a full end-to-end trajectory design: from launch and transfer to orbit design and orbit control. The results are the next steppingstone towards strengthening the feasibility and utility of these orbits for continuous planetary polar observation.     

Mars Global Surveyor aerobraking: Atmospheric trends and model interpretation

Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) recently obtained coordinated lower-atmosphere (thermal and dust) measurements and simultaneous upper atmosphere accelerometer data (densities, scale heights and temperatures) for the purpose of safely aerobraking the spacecraft toward its mapping orbit (Keating et al. 1998). Much useful scientific information was also gleaned that describes the coupling of these atmospheric regions during this Phase I aerobraking period (September 1997–March 1998; Ls = 184–300). The major features of this aerobraking data are presented, and its trends elucidated in order to: (1) illustrate the aerobraking environment experienced by the spacecraft, and (2) decompose the processes responsible for the atmospheric variations observed. Coupled general circulation models of the Mars lower and upper atmospheres are exercised to investigate the solar-orbital, seasonal, wave, and dust variations observed during MGS aerobraking. The precession of the MGS periapsis position during Phase I permits longitudinal, latitudinal, local time, and vertical variations of the thermosphere to be monitored. Future aerobraking activities at Mars will benefit greatly from this MGS aerobraking data and its model interpretation.     

火星进入段自主导航技术研究综述

火星大气进入过程的自主导航性能是影响火星着陆能力的重要因素之一.在此期间,导航方法的设计面临着可用敏感器少、环境气动等参数不确定大的困难.对火星进入过程中几种可用的自主导航方法的原理进行了阐述,探讨了其中的关键技术和研究现状,并对这些导航方法的优缺点进行了对比.针对当前进入段自主导航方式的不足,对如何提高火星进入段自主导航性能的手段进行了探讨.     

火星地形对火星大气运动的影响及火星尘暴发生的可能机制

本文在准地转模式的假定下,讨论了火星地形对火星大气的影响,并根据文章所提供的信息对火星尘暴发生的物理机制作了粗略的解释。     

Temperature structure and dynamics of the middle atmosphere of Venus

The definitive data set for the mean thermal structure of the Venusian middle atmosphere is published for the first time. Some recent interim results on a modelling study to interpret the measured thermal field in terms of the global dynamics are also presented. These indicate that (a) the zonal winds on Venus fall to very low values above about 90 km, (b) there is a strong mid-latitude jet which circles the planet approximately every two days, (c) the observed solar tides are dominated by the semi-diurnal component, in agreement with theory.     

火星大气进入段抗饱和固定时间阻力加速度跟踪制导律设计

研究了具有固定时间收敛特性的火星探测器大气进入段的标称轨迹跟踪制导问题。首先,针对横向运动,给出与速度成线性关系的航向误差漏斗走廊形式,完成了倾侧角的反号逻辑设计。与横程漏斗走廊反号逻辑相比,该逻辑计算量小,更适用于宇航计算机。与航向误差宽度走廊反号逻辑相比,该逻辑在高速状态下能够避免倾侧角的频繁切换,可提高任务成功的概率。其次,针对纵向运动,通过RBF神经网络补偿了倾侧角饱和问题,利用积分滑模设计了阻力加速度固定时间饱和跟踪制导律,其不仅可有效消除滑模控制的抖振问题,且将跟踪误差以两种不同形式引入制导律,能够加速收敛,能够保证跟踪误差在固定时间内快速收敛至0。最后,通过数值仿真验证了所设计的横向倾侧角切换逻辑和纵向制导律对标称轨迹的快速、精确跟踪能力。     

Implications of the VEGA balloon results from Venus atmospheric dynamics

The VEGA Venus Balloon Mission returned data on the themodynamic state of the atmosphere together with wind and cloud information. In this invited paper we review possible explanations for three aspects of the data: 1) the large amplitude atmospheric vertical winds encountered by the VEGA balloons; 2) the observed 6.5 K temperature difference consistently measured between the two VEGA balloons; and 3) the apparent influence of surface topography on atmospheric motions seen by the VEGA-2 balloon as it flew over the mountainous terrain known as Aphrodite.     

火星大气进入滑模自抗扰制导方法

针对火星探测器大气进入制导阶段存在着模型参数误差等不确定性,基于直接反馈线性化理论设计了一种滑模自抗扰进入制导方法。首先利用反馈线性化方法对跟踪系统模型进行线性化处理;在此基础上设计了滑模控制律,并利用线性扩张状态观测器估计系统的未知不确定量,在控制律中进行补偿;此外还给出了大气进入段的横向制导律。仿真结果表明,与反馈线性化方法相比,该方法设计的制导律有效地降低了模型参数误差对制导精度的影响,实现了对参考轨迹的良好跟踪,提高了探测器开伞点的精度。     

Production of nitrogen oxides by lightning and coronae discharges in simulated early Earth, Venus and Mars environments.

We present measurements for the production of nitrogen oxides (NO and N2O) in CO2-N2 mixtures that simulate different stages of the evolution of the atmospheres of the Earth, Venus and Mars. The nitrogen fixation rates by two different types of electrical discharges, namely lightning and coronae, were studied over a wide range in CO2 and N2 mixing ratios. Nitric oxide (NO) is formed with a maximum energy yield estimated to be ~1.3 x 10(16) molecule J-1 at 80% CO2 and ~1.3 x 10(14) molecule J-1 at 50% CO2 for lightning and coronae discharges, respectively. Nitrous oxide (N2O) is only formed by coronae discharge with a maximum energy yield estimated to be ~1.2 x 10(13) molecule J-1 at 50% CO2. The pronounced difference in NO production in lightning and coronae discharges and the lack of formation of N2O in lightning indicate that the physics and chemistry involved in nitrogen fixation differs substantially in these two forms of electric energy.     

Lightning on Venus

On the night side of Venus, the plasma wave instrument on the Pioneer-Venus Orbiter frequently detects strong and impulsive low-frequency noise bursts when the local magnetic field is strong and steady and when the field is oriented to point down to the ionosphere. The signals have characteristics of lightning whistlers and we have tried to identify the sources by tracing rays along the B-field from the Orbiter down toward the surface. An extensive data set strongly indicates a clustering of lightning sources near the Beta and Phoebe Regios, with additional significant clustering near the Atla Regio at the eastern edge of Aphrodite Terra. These results suggest that there are localized lightning sources at or near the planetary surface.     

Recent results on the Venus atmosphere from pioneer Venus radio occultations

Radio occultation measurements of the temperature structure of the Venus atmosphere have been obtained during seven occultation “seasons” extending from December 1978 to December 1983. Approximately 123 vertical profiles of temperature from about 40 km to about 85 km altitudes have been derived. Since these measurements cover latitudes from both poles to the equator, they have shown the latitudinal dependence of thermal structure. There is a smooth transition from the troposphere to the mesosphere at latitudes below about 45°, with the tropopause at about 56 km. The troposphere then rises to about 62 km in the “collar cloud” region between about 60° and 80° latitude, where a strong temperature inversion (up to 30 K) is present. In the polar areas, 80°–90°, the mesosphere becomes isothermal and there is no inversion. This latitudinal behavior is related to the persistent circulation pattern, in which a predominantly zonal retrograde motion at latitudes below 45° gradually changes to a circumpolar vortex at the “collar cloud” latitudes. Indeed, the radio occultation data have been used in a cyclostrophic balance model to derive zonal winds in the Venus atmosphere, which showed a mid-latitude (50°–55°) jet with a speed of about 120–140 ms^?1 at about 70 km altitude /1,2/. The observations obtained in 1983 and 1984 have shown that above the tropopause there is considerable temporal variability in the detailed thermal structure, suggesting that the persistent circulation pattern is subject to weather-like variability.     

Neutral atmosphere and crustal magnetization as factors determining differences in plasma convection and magnetic fields distribution in the ionospheres of Mars and Venus

The pattern of the magnetic field/plasma convection can be, to some extent, recovered from the magnetic field measurements by employing either theoretical or numerical models. We use the MAG/ER day-time measurements of the magnetic field at the altitudes from 90 to 180 km during the elliptical orbits of MGS. Analysis of the altitude variation of the characteristics of the large-scale magnetic fields, which were measured some distance away from strong crustal magnetic anomalies, is summarized. The low density of the Martian atmosphere together with the crustal magnetization result in critical differences in plasma convection which are followed by remarkable differences of the magnetic field features within the ionosphere of Venus and Mars (even in its northern hemisphere where the crustal magnetization is, on the average, low) and distribution of currents.