Imaging interplanetary CMEs at radio frequency from solar polar orbit

Coronal mass ejections (CMEs) represent a great concentration of mass and energy input into the lower corona. They have come to be recognized as the major driver of physical conditions change in the Sun–Earth system. Consequently, observations of CMEs are important for understanding and ultimately predicting space weather conditions. This paper discusses a proposed mission, the Solar Polar Orbit Radio Telescope (SPORT) mission, which will observe the propagation of interplanetary CMEs to distances of near 0.35 AU from the Sun. The orbit of SPORT is an elliptical solar polar orbit. The inclination angle between the orbit and ecliptic plane should be about 90°. The main payload on board SPORT will be an imaging radiometer working at the meter wavelength band (radio telescope), which can follow the propagation of interplanetary CMEs. The images that are obtained by the radio telescope embody the brightness temperature of the objectives. Due to the very large size required for the antenna aperture of the radio telescope, we adopt interferometric imaging technology to reduce it. Interferometric imaging technology is based on indirect spatial frequency domain measurements plus Fourier transformation. The SPORT spacecraft will also be equipped with a set of optical and in situ measurement instruments such as a EUV solar telescope, a solar wind ion instrument, an energetic particle detector, a magnetometer, a wave detector and a solar radio burst spectrometer.     

Solar and interplanetary parameters of CMEs with and without type II radio bursts

We have analyzed 101 CMEs, and their associated ICMEs and interplanetary (IP) shocks observed during the period 1997–2005. The main aim of the present work is to study the interplanetary characteristics of metric and DH type II associated CMEs such as, shock strength, IP shock speed, ICME speed, stand off distance and transit time. Among these 101 CMEs, 38 events show both metric and DH type II bursts characteristics. There are no metric and DH type II association for 52 events. While DH type II alone is found in 7 cases, metric type II alone is found in 4 events. It is found that the mean speeds of CMEs increase progressively from CMEs without type II events to CMEs associated with metric and DH type IIs as suggested by Gopalswamy et al. (2005). In addition, we found that the speeds of ICMEs and IP shocks progressively increase in the following order: events without metric and DH type IIs, events with metric alone, events with DH alone and events with both metric and DH type IIs. Similarly the Mach number is found to increase in the same order. While there is not much change in the stand-off distance among these cases, it is minimum (∼18 R_⊙) for CMEs with speed greater than 2200 km/s. The above results confirm that more energetic CMEs can produce both metric and DH type IIs for which the interplanetary parameters such as mean values of ICME speed and IP shock speed and Mach number are found to be higher.     

Geoeffectiveness of interplanetary shocks controlled by impact angles: A review

The high variability of the Sun’s magnetic field is responsible for the generation of perturbations that propagate throughout the heliosphere. Such disturbances often drive interplanetary shocks in front of their leading regions. Strong shocks transfer momentum and energy into the solar wind ahead of them which in turn enhance the solar wind interaction with magnetic fields in its way. Shocks then eventually strike the Earth’s magnetosphere and trigger a myriad of geomagnetic effects observed not only by spacecraft in space, but also by magnetometers on the ground. Recently, it has been revealed that shocks can show different geoeffectiveness depending closely on the angle of impact. Generally, frontal shocks are more geoeffective than inclined shocks, even if the former are comparatively weaker than the latter. This review is focused on results obtained from modeling and experimental efforts in the last 15?years. Some theoretical and observational background are also provided.     

An empirical model to predict the 1-AU arrival of interplanetary shocks

We extend the empirical coronal mass ejection (CME) arrival model of Gopalswamy et al. [Gopalswamy, N. et al. Predicting the 1-AU arrival times of coronal mass ejections, J. Geophys. Res. 106, 29207, 2001] to predict the 1-AU arrival of interplanetary (IP) shocks. A set of 29 IP shocks and the associated magnetic clouds observed by the Wind spacecraft are used for this study. The primary input to this empirical shock arrival model is the initial speed of white-light CMEs obtained using coronagraphs. We use the gas dynamic piston–shock relationship to derive the ESA model which provides a simple means of obtaining the 1-AU speed and arrival times of interplanetary shocks using CME speeds.     

Propagation and interaction of interplanetary transient disturbances. Numerical simulations

We study the heliocentric evolution of ICME-like disturbances and their associated transient forward shocks (TFSs) propagating in the interplanetary (IP) medium comparing the solutions of a hydrodynamic (HD) and magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) models using the ZEUS-3D code [Stone, J.M., Norman, M.L., 1992. Zeus-2d: a radiation magnetohydrodynamics code for astrophysical flows in two space dimensions. i – the hydrodynamic algorithms and tests. Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 80, 753–790]. The simulations show that when a fast ICME and its associated IP shock propagate in the inner heliosphere they have an initial phase of about quasi-constant propagation speed (small deceleration) followed, after a critical distance (deflection point), by an exponential deceleration. By combining white light coronograph and interplanetary scintillation (IPS) measurements of ICMEs propagating within 1 AU [Manoharan, P.K., 2005. Evolution of coronal mass ejections in the inner heliosphere: a study using white-light and scintillation images. Solar Physics 235 (1–2), 345–368], such a critical distance and deceleration has already been inferred observationally. In addition, we also address the interaction between two ICME-like disturbances: a fast ICME 2 overtaking a previously launched slower ICME 1. After interaction, the leading ICME 1 accelerates and the tracking ICME 2 decelerates and both ICMEs tend to arrive at 1 AU having similar speeds. The 2-D HD and MHD models show similar qualitative results for the evolution and interaction of these disturbances in the IP medium.     

行星际激波传播至1AU的渡越时间预测

考虑了激波爆发源角宽度、能量、驱动时间、激波速度及其与背景太阳风之间的相互作用,利用流体力学扰动方程建立起一个激波扰动传播模型,用于研究激波从太阳传播到地球轨道附近(1 AU处)所需要的时间(渡越时间)问题.为印证扰动传播模型的适用性,利用1979-1989年间的27个激波事件,以及1997年2月到2000年1月间的68个激波事件,对激波到达地球轨道附近的渡越时间进行了预测,并将结果与STOA和ISPM预报模型结果进行了比较.实验表明,该模型在所有95个事件中,渡越时间相对误差小于10%的事件数占总事件数的25.26%;相对误差小于20%的占总事件数的50.53%;相对误差小于30%的占总事件的65.26%.     

Propagation of interplanetary shocks into the Earth’s magnetosphere

This paper is devoted to the study of propagation of disturbances caused by interplanetary shocks (IPS) through the Earth’s magnetosphere. Using simultaneous observations of various fast forward shocks by different satellites in the solar wind, magnetosheath and magnetosphere from 1995 till 2002, we traced the interplanetary shocks into the Earth’s magnetosphere, we calculated the velocity of their propagation into the Earth’s magnetosphere and analyzed fronts of the disturbances. From the onset of disturbances at different satellites in the magnetosphere we obtained speed values ranging from 500 to 1300 km/s in the direction along the IP shock normal, that is in a general agreement with results of previous numerical MHD simulations. The paper discusses in detail a sequence of two events on November 9th, 2002. For the two cases we estimated the propagation speed of the IP shock caused disturbance between the dayside and nightside magnetosphere to be 590 km/s and 714–741 km/s, respectively. We partially attributed this increase to higher Alfven speed in the outer magnetosphere due to the compression of the magnetosphere as a consequence of the first event, and partially to the faster and stronger driving interplanetary shock. High-time resolution GOES magnetic field data revealed a complex structure of the compressional wave fronts at the dayside geosynchronous orbit during these events, with initial very steep parts (10 s). We discuss a few possible mechanisms of such steep front formation in the paper.     

CME dynamics using coronagraph and interplanetary ejecta data

In this work, we present a study of the coronal mass ejection (CME) dynamics using LASCO coronagraph observations combined with in-situ ACE plasma and magnetic field data, covering a continuous period of time from January 1997 to April 2001, complemented by few extreme events observed in 2001 and 2003. We show, for the first time, that the CME expansion speed correlates very well with the travel time to 1 AU of the interplanetary ejecta (or ICMEs) associated with the CMEs, as well as with their preceding shocks. The events analyzed in this work are a subset of the events studied in Schwenn et al. (2005), from which only the CMEs associated with interplanetary ejecta (ICMEs) were selected. Three models to predict CME travel time to Earth, two proposed by Gopalswamy et al. (2001) and one by Schwenn et al. (2005), were used to characterize the dynamical behavior of this set of events. Extreme events occurred in 2001 and 2003 were used to test the prediction capability of the models regarding CMEs with very high LASCO C3 speeds.     

运用一维太阳风MHD CE/SE模型预报行星际激波到达时间

在一维太阳风磁流体(MHD)数值模拟中, 应用时空守恒元和解元(Conservation Element/Solution Element, CE/SE)方法, 建立了一个行星际激波扰动传播模型(1D-MHD (CE/SE)模型), 用来预报行星际激波到达时间. 收集了1997年2月至2002年8月间的137个激波事件, 对激波到达地球轨道附近的传播时间进行了预测, 并将预报结果与STOA, ISPM, HAFv.2以及SPM模型所得结果进行比较. 对于相同的样本事件, 1D-MHD (CE/SE)模型给出的渡越时间平均绝对值误差并不大于其他4个模型, 且该模型预报的相对误差小于10 %的事件占25.6 %, 小于30 %的事件占69.3 %, 小于50 %的事件占87.6 %, 其预报精度与其他模型相比基本相当. 这表明该模型在空间天气的激波到达时间预报方面有潜在的应用价值.     

Solar and interplanetary origins of the November 2004 superstorms

During the first half of November 2004, many solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs) were associated with solar active region (AR) 10696. This paper attempts to identify the solar and interplanetary origins of two superstorms which occurred on 8 and 10 November with peak intensities of Dst = −373 nT and −289 nT, respectively. Southward interplanetary magnetic fields within a magnetic cloud (MC), and a sheath + MC were the causes of these two superstorms, respectively. Two different CME propagation models [Gopalswamy, N., Yashiro, S., Kaiser, M.L. et al. Predicting the 1-AU arrival times of coronal mass ejections. J. Geophys. Res. 106, 29207–29219, 2001; Gopalswamy, N.S., Lara, A., Manoharan, P.K. et al. An empirical model to predict the 1-AU arrival of interplanetary shocks. Adv. Space Res. 36, 2289–2294, 2005] were employed to attempt to identify the solar sources. It is found that the models identify several potential CMEs as possible sources for each of the superstorms. The two Gopalswamy et al. models give the possible sources for the first superstorm as CMEs on 2330 UT 4 November 2004 or on 1454 UT 5 November 2004. For the second superstorm, the possible solar source was a CME that on 0754 UT 5 November 2004 or one that occurred on 1206 UT 5 November 2004. We note that other propagation models sometimes agree and other times disagree with the above results. It is concluded that during high solar/interplanetary activity intervals such as this one, the exact solar source is difficult to identify. More refined propagation models are needed.     

Orientations of LASCO Halo CMEs and their connection to the flux rope structure of interplanetary CMEs

Coronal mass ejections (CMEs) observed near the Sun via LASCO coronographic imaging are the most important solar drivers of geomagnetic storms. ICMEs, their interplanetary, near-Earth counterparts, can be detected in situ, for example, by the Wind and ACE spacecraft. An ICME usually exhibits a complex structure that very often includes a magnetic cloud (MC). They can be commonly modelled as magnetic flux ropes and there is observational evidence to expect that the orientation of a halo CME elongation corresponds to the orientation of the flux rope. In this study, we compare orientations of elongated CME halos and the corresponding MCs, measured by Wind and ACE spacecraft. We characterize the MC structures by using the Grad–Shafranov reconstruction technique and three MC fitting methods to obtain their axis directions. The CME tilt angles and MC fitted axis angles were compared without taking into account handedness of the underlying flux rope field and the polarity of its axial field. We report that for about 64% of CME–MC events, we found a good correspondence between the orientation angles implying that for the majority of interplanetary ejecta their orientations do not change significantly (less than 45 deg rotation) while travelling from the Sun to the near-Earth environment.     

Relationship between substorm activity and the interplanetary medium parameters during the main phase of strong magnetic storms

In the present paper dependences of substorm activity on the solar wind velocity and southward component (Bz) of interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) during the main phase of magnetic storms, induced by the CIR and ICME events, is studied. Strong magnetic storms with close values of Dst_min?≈??100?±?10?nT are considered. For the period of 1979–2017 there are selected 26 magnetic storms induced by the CIR and ICME (MC?+?Ejecta) events. It is shown that for the CIR and ICME events the average value of the AE index (AE_aver) at the main phase of magnetic storm correlates with the solar wind electric field. The highest correlation coefficient (r?=?0.73) is observed for the magnetic storms induced by the CIR events. It is found that the AE_aver for magnetic storms induced by ICME events, unlike CIR events, increases with the growth of average value of the southward IMF Bz module. The analysis of dependence between the AE_aver and average value of the solar wind velocity (Vsw_aver) during the main phase of magnetic storm shows that in the CIR events, unlike ICME, the AE_aver correlates on the Vsw_aver.     

Magnetospheric and ionospheric manifestations of interplanetary foreshocks

The geometry of a typical interplanetary shock front in the vicinity of the Earth’s orbit predicts that the leading edge of the foreshock region comes into contact with the magnetosphere a few hours ahead of geomagnetic sudden impulses (SI). There is reason to believe that the interaction of the magnetosphere with the foreshock leads to magnetic and ionospheric disturbances, which can be detected by ground-based instruments. We searched for specific precursors of SIs in data from the Scandinavian riometer network and in the short period geomagnetic pulsation data from mid-latitude magnetometers. We found that SIs were preceded by the following three features: (1) an increase in riometric absorption, (2) excitation of Pcl magnetic pulsations and (3) a spectral broadening of the Pc3 magnetic pulsations. Our observations may be useful for the study of acceleration processes in the solar wind. These observations are also of potential forecasting interest.     

联合太阳和行星际物理参数预测行星际激波能否到达地球

选取第23太阳活动周（1997—2006年）期间542例由太阳爆发活动驱动的行星际激波事件,分析确定了太阳源头和行星际空间中影响行星际激波能否到达地球轨道的关键物理参数;在此基础上,建立了预测行星际激波能否到达地球的新预报模型（EdEaSPM）. 回溯预报结果表明,EdEaSPM模型的预报成功率约为66%,略高于国际一流预报模型的预报成功率;EdEaSPM模型的虚报率未超过50%,改善了当前国际主流模型虚报率较大的情况;对于偏度指标,虽然当前所有模型的偏度值均大于1,但EdEaSPM模型的偏度值最接近于1且明显小于其他模型的偏度值;EdEaSPM模型的其他评价指标也都高于国际主流模型的相应指标. 此外,选取2012年期间的激波事件对EdEaSPM模型进行了预报检验,预测结果与实际情况吻合. EdEaSPM模型不仅能够提前约1～3天进行预报,而且预报效果与国际一流模型具有可比性,尤其是在提高预报成功率及降低虚报率方面具有一定优势.     

Relationships between energetic storm particle events and interplanetary shocks driven by full and partial halo coronal mass ejections

We have analysed energetic storm particle (ESP) events in 116 interplanetary (IP) shocks driven by front-side full and partial halo coronal mass ejections (CMEs) with speeds $>$400 km s^?1during the years 1996–2015. We investigated the occurrence and relationships of ESP events with several parameters describing the IP shocks, and the associated CMEs, type II radio bursts, and solar energetic particle (SEP) events. Most of the shocks (57 %) were associated with an ESP event at proton energies $>$1 MeV.The shock transit speeds from the Sun to 1 AU of the shocks associated with an ESP event were significantly greater than those of the shocks without an ESP event, and best distinguished these two groups of shocks from each other. The occurrence and maximum intensity of the ESP events also had the strongest dependence on the shock transit speed compared to the other parameters investigated. The correlation coefficient between ESP peak intensities and shock transit speeds was highest (0.73 $\pm$ 0.04) at 6.2 MeV. Weaker dependences were found on the shock speed at 1 AU, Alfvénic and magnetosonic Mach numbers, shock compression ratio, and CME speed. On average all these parameters were significantly different for shocks capable to accelerate ESPs compared to shocks not associated with ESPs, while the differences in the shock normal angle and in the width and longitude of the CMEs were insignificant.The CME-driven shocks producing energetic decametric–hectometric (DH) type II radio bursts and high-intensity SEP events proved to produce also more frequently ESP events with larger particle flux enhancements than other shocks. Together with the shock transit speed, the characteristics of solar DH type II radio bursts and SEP events play an important role in the occurrence and maximum intensity of ESP events at 1 AU.     

Fluctuations of cosmic rays and IMF in the vicinity of interplanetary shocks

Fluctuations of cosmic rays and interplanetary magnetic field upstream of interplanetary shocks are studied using data of ground-based polar neutron monitors as well as measurements of energetic particles and solar wind plasma parameters aboard the ACE spacecraft. It is shown that coherent cosmic ray fluctuations in the energy range from 10 keV to 1 GeV are often observed at the Earth’s orbit before the arrival of interplanetary shocks. This corresponds to an increase of solar wind turbulence level by more than the order of magnitude upstream of the shock. We suggest a scenario where the cosmic ray fluctuation spectrum is modulated by fast magnetosonic waves generated by flux of low-energy cosmic rays which are reflected and/or accelerated by an interplanetary shock.     

The effects of the solar magnetic polarity and the solar wind velocity on Bz-component of the interplanetary magnetic field

We have studied the effect of both solar magnetic polarity and the solar wind velocity on the Bz-component of the interplanetary magnetic field, IMFBz, for the minimum activity of the solar cycles 21, 22, 23 and 24. We made a statistical study of IMFBz in the first section which is considered as an extension of Lyatsky et al. (2003). They made a statistical study of IMFBz for two periods of minimum solar activity 22 and 23 related to 1985–1987 and 1995–1997 when the solar magnetic field had opposite polarity. Our results seem to be consistent with the results obtained by Lyatsky et al. (2003). We found that there is a dependence of IMFBz on the IMFBx and the solar magnetic polarity for the minimum periods of the selected four solar cycles. In addition, we found that there is a dependence of IMFBz on the solar wind velocity.     

Viewing radiation signatures of solar energetic particles in interplanetary space

A current serious limitation on the studies of solar energetic particle (SEP) events is that their properties in the inner heliosphere are studied only through in situ spacecraft observations. Our understanding of spatial distributions and temporal variations of SEP events has come through statistical studies of many such events over several solar cycles. In contrast, flare SEPs in the solar corona can be imaged through their radiative and collisional interactions with solar fields and particles. We suggest that the heliospheric SEPs may also interact with heliospheric particles and fields to produce signatures which can be remotely observed and imaged. A challenge with any such candidate signature is to separate it from that of flare SEPs. The optimum case for imaging high-energy (E > 100 MeV) heliospheric protons may be the emission of π⁰-decay γ-rays following proton collisions with solar wind (SW) ions. In the case of E > 1 MeV electrons, gyrosynchrotron radio emission may be the most readily detectible remote signal. In both cases we may already have observed one or two such events. Another radiative signature from nonthermal particles may be resonant transition radiation, which has likely already been observed from solar flare electrons. We discuss energetic neutrons as another possible remote signature, but we rule out γ-ray line and 0.511 MeV positron annihilation emission as observable signatures of heliospheric energetic ions. We are already acquiring global signatures of large inner-heliospheric SW density features and of heliosheath interactions between the SW and interstellar neutral ions. By finding an appropriate observable signature of remote heliospheric SEPs, we could supplement the in situ observations with global maps of energetic SEP events to provide a comprehensive view of SEP events.