The Future of Public–Private Partnerships in Satellite Communications

Around 50 leaders and experts from space industry, governmental and financial institutions participated in an ESA conference on “The Future of Public–Private Partnerships in Satellite Communications” in Vienna in March 2009. An increasing portion of commercial and institutional space projects are operated under the provisions of service contracts, with public–private partnerships (PPPs) becoming a significant source of financing for space programmes. The conference was based on a study initiated by ESA and performed by Euroconsult, Milbank and ESPI, outlining the main perspectives of modern PPP models in the European satellite communications sector.     

From initial ideas to a European plan: GMES as an exemplar of European space strategy

Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES) is an idea which originated during a meeting in Baveno, Italy, in May 1998, which generated a call for Europe to get its act together in the field of environmental monitoring from space, to define a well articulated strategy in this area and to build upon its excellent scientific research community, its proven technical prowess in Earth observation from space and its nascent political will to express its objectives in international fora related to climate change and other global environment topics. While Europe was already active in the most advanced areas of global monitoring, its rather uncoordinated efforts (even within the European Commission) lacked visibility and did not appear to fit into a clearly established strategy. The ‘Baveno initiative’ was an attempt to remedy this situation and find a place within a developing ‘European Strategy for Space’, which requires ESA and the European Union to work more closely together. GMES was extended to include the ‘security’ (in its wider sense) aspects of global monitoring, a move that produced a number of questions and misunderstandings, but which allowed many in Europe to realize that monitoring the activities of the Earth’ land masses, oceans and atmosphere do include a security dimension. GMES will eventually incorporate an implementation plan which will call upon various monitoring techniques, ambitious modelling projects and connections with society's more urgent requirements with respect to environmental protection and prevention or reduction of risks related to natural hazards. This will entail significant efforts to inform the user communities and to convince them of the relevance and usefulness of this initiative. It will also provide a sound basis for the European contribution to the new initiative for improved coordination of strategies and systems for Earth observations called for by the July 2003 Earth Observation Summit.     

ESDP and the space sector—defining the architecture and mechanisms for effective cooperation

This paper aims to identify and address key determinants of ESDP in space—political, industrial, research, technology and development (RTD) and procurement issues. It refers to different forms of cooperation serving the security and defence objectives of the EuropeanCommunity but organized beyond it (ESA, OCCAR, LoI, BOC, bi -or multilateral cooperation), attempting to define architecture and mechanisms for effective collaboration that could be applied between all members of the “EU 25”.     

A joint European strategy for space

This paper describes the background to the creation of the first coherent space strategy for Europe and explains why such a co-operative effort is necessary—in order to achieve strategic economic and security goals for the benefit of Europe's citizens. It discusses the three major objectives of the strategy and looks at the differing roles that will be played by ESA and the European Commission in its implementation, as well as at the developing relationship between the two bodies.     

Developments in space activities in Poland

Poland has a long-standing tradition in space activities. Polish institutions have participated as co-investigators in almost all European Space Agency (ESA) science projects, as well as on many other missions. However, the first Polish satellite (PW-SAT) was only launched in 2012. Poland was one of the first Eastern European countries to conclude a Cooperation Agreement with ESA in the peaceful use of outer space; it was signed in 1994 and followed by a second in January 2002. Negotiations on Polish membership in the ESA were started in autumn of 2011, and ended in April 2012. Following ratification of the agreement, Poland officially became the 20th Member State of ESA on 19 November 2012. This article examines how Poland is setting its way as a space nation. It describes recent developments in the Polish space programme, including the road to Poland's full membership in the European Space Agency.     

Switzerland and space – how a small country succeeds

Is it possible for small nations to get their concerns aired or improve their industries and economies in the field of space activities? In this edited version of a speech to the international symposium on ‘The History of the European Space Agency’, held in London, 11–13 November 1998, the author demonstrates that, through judicious cooperative endeavour within the framework of ESA, and a willingness to put forward solutions rather than harping on problems, it is. Switzerland’s role in the foundation of ESA is discussed, along with various successful initiatives taken by the country. The particular difficulties presented by the country’s constitution – and how they have been overcome – are also examined. The author concludes with some thoughts on the present and futute state of space affairs in Europe.     

European R&D in the satellite communication user Earth segment

This paper refers to a study (specificaly to its chapter 7)¹ carried out by Euroconsult for ESA on the key characteristics of European R&D in the satellite communications user Earth segment. The study was initiated by the Working Group on Satellite Communications Policy² of the Joint Board on Communications Satellite Programmes (JCB), which was established by the Director General of ESA in July 1990 to contribute to the European agency's response to the EC Green Paper. The working group specifically expresses the European space communications industry's point of view.     

Some comments on the ESA/EU space strategy

Not only have the European Space Agency (ESA) and the European Union Commission succeeded in producing a joint space strategy within the time set for it, they have created a substantial and worthwhile document which recognises the importance of space for Europe and acknowledges that ESA—not national agencies—is the right body for the conduct of Europe's space efforts. Nevertheless, the strategy's lack of any government financial commitment is a worry— Public–Private Partnerships will never be enough—as is its failure to include any thought for the long term, and in particular manned flight. This critique of the strategy argues for more government spending on space and for greater long-term vision.     

Registration of space objects: ESA member states’ practice

The registration of space objects is indispensable for the orderly administration of outer space. Most states recognize this and comply with the instruments—the Registration Convention and the UN General Assembly Resolution—set up to permit registration, but they display different approaches to and interpretations of the concept of registration. This article examines the registration practices of various European Space Agency (ESA) member states and of ESA itself. It finds that, despite varied policies, the system seems to be working well. However, there has been a worrying rise in non-registrations over the past few years, perhaps linked to the growth in the number of, especially commercial, entities engaging in space activities.     

Intellectual property rights and space activities

On 5 and 6 December 1994, a two-day workshop was organised by the European Space Agency (ESA) and the European Centre for Space Law (ECSL) at ESA's Headquarters in Paris on the theme ‘Intellectual property rights and space activities: a worldwide perspective’. It was attended by some 90 participants and 16 papers were presented, analysing legal and policy issues with regard to intellectual property rights (IPRs) and space activities in a world context.     

Europe without fractures: a Spanish view of the European Space Strategy

On 16 November 2000, the Council of the European Space Agency (ESA) meeting at Ministerial level and the European Research Council of the European Union (EU) gathered in Brussels to adopt in parallel two resolutions on a European Strategy for Space. This political impetus indicates a clear motivation to support the further development of the European space sector, based on a much closer collaboration between the two European institutions, thereby exploiting their respective competencies and synergies. This paper presents some Spanish viewpoints relative to the common European Strategy for Space of the EU and ESA. Spain is supportive of the new strategy and the paper describes how its co-ordinated approach could be translated into action across various European programmes.     

The EU's emergent space diplomacy

Science and technology (S&T) have always been at the heart of the European political construction. This started in the Cold War through a series of pan-European collaborative schemes in a panoply of different scientific fields like molecular biology and nuclear research. However, while most of these early collaborative patterns focused on intra-European cooperation, in the post-Cold War era international S&T relations have evolved to encompass a broader international dimension. The European Union is now building a diverse and robust network of cooperation with non-EU partners to become a centre of gravity in international S&T affairs. This increasing linkage between S&T and foreign policy is particularly explicit in space activities. Even though it is the newest space actor in Europe, the EU is pushing the continent to extend the scope of its partnerships with Russia and China, while at the same time modifying its relations with the traditional European partner, the USA, illustrating therefore the emergence of a distinct “EU space diplomacy”.     

What role for Europe within a future global space exploration approach?

Europe is present in robotic exploration though the European Space Agency?s mandatory space science program and the optional Aurora program. In addition some member states are also involved in projects of non-European space faring countries through bilateral co-operations. Europe is also present in human exploration through the ISS utilization program. ESA and some of its member states participate in the activities of the International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG), a club of 14 space agencies working for the elaboration of a global exploration roadmap. Finally, ESA and the European Union have initiated a political approach with the setting up of an international forum so as to elaborate a commonly agreed vision on space exploration at political level.     

EVA Suit 2000: a joint European/Russian space suit design

A feasibility study in 1992 showed the benefits of a common European Russian space suit development, EVA Suit 2000, replacing the Russian space suit Orlan-DMA and the planned European Hermes EVA space suit at the turn of the century. This EVA Suit 2000 is a joint development initiated by the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Russian Space Agency (RKA). The main objectives of this development program are: first utilization aboard the Russian Space Station MIR-2; performance improvement with respect to current operational suits; development cost reduction. Russian experience gained with the present extravehicular activity (EVA) suit on the MIR Space Station and extensive application of European Technologies will be needed to achieve these ambitious goals. This paper presents the current status of the development activities, the space suit system design and concentrates in more detail on life support aspects. Specific subjects addressed will include the overall life support conceptual architecture, design features, crew comfort and operational considerations.     

A European view on UNISPACE III follow-up

Preparations for the third UN Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNISPACE III) were intense. The conference itself was a success. But what forms will the follow-up take? Just reading the 150-page report is an effort in itself. Having played a central part in the preparations and organization, Europe fully appreciates the need to build on the spirit of cooperation which emerged from UNISPACE III. In November 1999, the European States gathered to analyze the results of the conference and to set a course for their future participation in the United Nations Programme on Space Applications (UNPSA), which is mainly done through ESA, and for their participation in the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS), which is done through coordination among ESA Member States. This article presents the authors’ personal accounts of the results of the European efforts around UNISPACE III and shows how ‘European foreign policy’ can work in international space policy. It also seeks to illustrate Europe's commitment to putting space technology to work for the benefit of development throughout the world.     

The challenges and opportunities of a commercial human spaceflight mission to the ISS

ESA astronauts' ISS flight opportunities are considered as a vital source to meet the utilisation, operation and political objectives that Europe has established for participating in the International Space Station programme. Recent internal ESA assessments have demonstrated that a rate of three flights per year for European Astronauts should be maintained as a minimum objective. The current flight rate is lower than this. In order to improve this situation, in the context of the activation of the ESA ISS Commercialisation programme, ESA is developing the conditions for the establishment of commercially based human spaceflights with the financial support of both ESA and the private sector or, in the future, only the latter. ESA is working in a Partnership with the space industry to facilitate the implementation of such projects and support customers with a range of end-to-end commercial services. The opportunities and challenges of a "commercial human spaceflight", involving a member of the European Astronaut Corps, or a privately employed flight participant, are discussed here.     

QUASAT program: The ESA reflector

QUASAT is a joint ESA/NASA cooperative mission for a free-flying VLBI antenna to be used with the U.S. and European ground arrays. The spaceborn reflector shall have a diameter of 15 m or more and shall operate at three frequencies: 1.6, 5 and 22 GHz. These requirements are very stringent and very difficult to satisfy. The reflector proposed by the European Space Agency as part of the Quasat assessment study shall be presented. Such reflector shall use the Inflatable Space Rigidized technology under development within ESA. Results of the performances envisaged from such design shall be discussed together with the manufacturing and testing problems envisaged for such reflector. Results derived by different reflector design but using the same Inflatable Space Rigidized technology shall also be presented.     

A pilot survey of attitudes to space sciences and exploration among British school children

Over 200 school children in eight schools in the east of England were surveyed to determine their interest in space exploration and awareness of current space activities. Of those surveyed, 33% were interested in space to ‘discover a new planet’, and 24% to find life on another planet. When asked to list space exploration organisations 77% listed NASA. Six of those surveyed listed ESA (<0.5%). The data bring starkly to light, despite the Huygens landing on Titan and Mars Express, the lack of awareness of the existence of ESA among a new generation of European school children. These data suggest that further surveys are merited to determine the factors that influence interest in space sciences and related disciplines among school children, and the source of their information.     

Near-critical fluids under microgravity : status of the eseme program and perspectives for the iss

Started 16 years ago, the ESEME program has led to a number of important findings. We note a simple and unified view of phase transitions, which has been applied to the development of biological patterns, and a very fast thermalization mode that we coined the “piston effect”. This effect has been applied to control the cryogenic reservoirs of the Ariane 5 rocket. All these findings have been obtained thanks to the good coordination of the ESA and CNES space facilities and the construction of high technology experimental modules. The future of the program is linked to the CNES DECLIC facility and the ESA Fluid Science Laboratory (FSL). DECLIC has been designed to increase the temperature regulation above the critical point of water (550 K) so as to investigate chemical reactions under conditions of supercritical water, and in relation to the promising applications of waste treatment by supercritical oxidation. Thanks to the construction of a special vibrational Experiment Container for FSL, the thermal and mechanical behavior of fluids under forced vibration can be investigated. The results of such studies will help to estimate the effect of g-jitter on fluids, and control gases and liquids in space.     

Defining a European space research policy: The role of the European Space Science Committee

The willingness of the European Union (EU) to acquire an important position by defining a well articulated space policy for Europe requires a redefinition of the roles of the various actors of this policy. This has been demonstrated at the last ESA Ministerial Conference despite the financial difficulties encountered by all spacefaring European countries. The European Space Science Committee (ESSC), an associated Committee of the European Science Foundation (ESF), actively participated in the elaboration of such a policy by presenting the point of view of the space scientific community and making recommendations to ensure that scientific space research is appropriately accounted for in overall European space policy. The ESSC is briefly described along with its activities and contributions to the definition of a European space policy.