出舱活动的医学问题

从1965年至1988年，前苏联共进行了25次出舱活动，22名航天员进行了49人次出舱活动，累积出舱时间为164h。前苏联专家在这期间获得了出舱活动医学保障的丰富经验。根据这些经验，我们得出了有关出舱活动医学保障的一些一般性结论。     

人机整合出舱活动的模拟失重试验技术研究进展

航天员进行出舱活动(EVA)是我国载人航天技术发展的一个关键步骤。利用航天员的出舱活动可以完成观测地面目标、在轨维修和组装大型空间设施等任务。但另一方面,航天员的出舱活动又是极其昂贵和带有极大风险性的空间作业任务。美国航宇局的资料表明,空间出舱活动1小时,在地面至     

出舱活动飞船人机界面工效学设计及其研究进展

1965年3月18日前苏联航天员列昂诺夫完成上升2号飞船的首次出舱活动，并在太空停留了12分钟。同年6月，美国航天员怀特在双子星座4号飞船舱外停留了22分钟。航天员进行舱外活动不但证明了舱外航天服的保护下，人可以在太空中生存，同时也说明了可以在载人航天器舱外完成许多有益的工作，例如哈勃空间望远镜的修复、空间站的在轨组装与维修。因而，到2003年4月为止，世界各国共实现了257次出舱活动，     

舱外活动里程碑

1．第一次舱外活动 第一次舱外活动是由原苏联航天员Alexey Leonov于1965年3月18日,从“上升”号飞船出舱完成的。     

“和平”号空间站医学保障的主要结果

世界上第一次出舱活动是在1965年“上升-2”飞船飞行中由俄罗斯航天员列昂诺夫进行的。1969年1月俄罗斯人第二次出舱，两名乘员从“联盟-5”转移到“联盟-4”飞船中。第一次出舱活动仅持续了12min，第二次出舱活动增加到37min。稍后，在1977～1986年间，俄罗斯从“礼炮-6”和“礼炮-7”空间站的飞行中取得了大量的出舱活动经验。在实现这些长期航天飞行计划中，     

人类第一次太空出舱活动(上篇)

1965年3月18日,前苏联航天员阿里克谢·列昂诺夫(Aleksei Leonov)走出了"上升"2号飞船,从而成功实现了人类第一次在太空的出舱活动。这次太空出舱活动使理论付诸实践.从此真正打开了太空的大门。在我国"神七"即将发射、进行太空出舱活动之际.本栏目将分上下两篇对前苏联,也是对全人类的第一次太空出舱活动进行展示和回顾。     

美国载人航天器上的出舱活动系统

“双子星”飞船。出舱活动航天服：1962年美国航空航天局花费21万美元研制“双子星”航天服。双予星G4C型为出舱活动航天服，由美国航天员穿着完成了首次出舱活动。这种型号服装的特点是手套有一定改进，手腕和手指的灵活性有所提高。另外该型航天服还能与“双子星”航天员机动装置匹配。     

太空行走100问（七）

出舱活动使用的工具 40航天员出舱活动使用的工具有何特殊之处？分为几种类型？ 航天员出舱主要是为了进行设备维修、保养、检查和安装,因此他们像地球上的检修和安装工人一样要使用各种各样的工具。由于出舱活动用的工具是在太空失重环境中使用,因此这种工具与地面上使用的不同。     

欧洲航天员因病推迟出舱情况分析

在美国“亚特兰蒂斯”号STS-122飞行任务中，欧洲航天局航天员汉斯·施勒格尔因健康问题无法执行出舱活动，改由NASA航天员来执行，且出舱活动日期也被迫向后推迟一天。本文简述了该事件发生的经过，并对出舱活动航天员的健康情况和医保实施情况进行了简要分析。     

载人航天器出舱活动氧气分压控制研究

载人航天器出舱活动期间氧气分压控制是保证航天员安全和完成出舱任务的重要因素.文章通过对出舱过程中引起氧气分压变化的因素分析,进行了出舱活动低压情况下的氧气分压安全限的试验验证研究,建立了出舱活动氧气分压变化趋势仿真模型,并在此基础上确定了出舱活动阶段舱压和氧气分压的调控方案     

One hundred US EVAs: a perspective on spacewalks

In the 36 years between June 1965 and February 2001, the US human space flight program has conducted 100 spacewalks, or extravehicular activities (EVAs), as NASA officially calls them. EVA occurs when astronauts wearing spacesuits travel outside their protective spacecraft to perform tasks in the space vacuum environment. US EVA started with pioneering feasibility tests during the Gemini Program. The Apollo Program required sending astronauts to the moon and performing EVA to explore the lunar surface. EVA supported scientific mission objectives of the Skylab program, but may be best remembered for repairing launch damage to the vehicle and thus saving the program. EVA capability on Shuttle was initially planned to be a kit that could be flown at will, and was primarily intended for coping with vehicle return emergencies. The Skylab emergency and the pivotal role of EVA in salvaging that program quickly promoted Shuttle EVA to an essential element for achieving mission objectives, including retrieving satellites and developing techniques to assemble and maintain the International Space Station (ISS). Now, EVA is supporting assembly of ISS. This paper highlights development of US EVA capability within the context of the overarching mission objectives of the US human space flight program.     

EVA worksite analysis—Use of computer analysis for EVA operations development and execution

To sustain the rate of extravehicular activity (EVA) required to assemble and maintain the International Space Station, we must enhance our ability to plan, train for, and execute EVAs. An underlying analysis capability has been developed to ensure EVA access to all external worksites as a starting point for ground training, to generate information needed for on-orbit training, and to react quickly to develop contingency EVA plans, techniques, and procedures. This paper describes the use of computer-based EVA worksite analysis techniques for EVA worksite design. EVA worksite analysis has been used to design 80% of EVA worksites on the U.S. portion of the International Space Station. With the launch of the first U.S. element of the station, EVA worksite analysis is being developed further to support real-time analysis of unplanned EVA operations. This paper describes this development and deployment of EVA worksite analysis for International Space Station (ISS) mission support.     

EVA Suit 2000: a joint European/Russian space suit design

A feasibility study in 1992 showed the benefits of a common European Russian space suit development, EVA Suit 2000, replacing the Russian space suit Orlan-DMA and the planned European Hermes EVA space suit at the turn of the century. This EVA Suit 2000 is a joint development initiated by the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Russian Space Agency (RKA). The main objectives of this development program are: first utilization aboard the Russian Space Station MIR-2; performance improvement with respect to current operational suits; development cost reduction. Russian experience gained with the present extravehicular activity (EVA) suit on the MIR Space Station and extensive application of European Technologies will be needed to achieve these ambitious goals. This paper presents the current status of the development activities, the space suit system design and concentrates in more detail on life support aspects. Specific subjects addressed will include the overall life support conceptual architecture, design features, crew comfort and operational considerations.     

The Soviet-Russian space suits a historical overview of the 1960's

The development of protective suits for space use started with the Vostok-suit SK-1, first used by Yu. Gagarin on April 12, 1961, and then used on all subsequent Vostok-flights. The technical background for the design of these suits was the work on full pressure protective suits for military pilots and stratospheric flights in the 1930's through 50's. The Soviet-Russian space programme contains a large number of 'firsts', and one of the most well known is the first EVA by Leonov in 1965. This event is also the starting point for a long series of space suit development for Extravehicular Activities over the last 35 years. The next step to come was the transfer in void space of crew members between the two spacecraft Soyuz 4 and 5 in 1969. As has later become known this was an essential element in the planned Soviet lunar exploration programme, which in itself required a new space suit. After the termination of the lunar programme in 1972, the space suit development concentrated on suits applicable to zero-gravity work around the manned space stations Salyut 6, Salyut 7 and MIR. These suits have become known as the ORLAN-family of suits, and an advanced version of this suit (ORLAN-M) will be used on the International Space Station together with the American EMU. This paper covers the space suit development in the Soviet Union in the 1960's and the experience used from the pre-space era.     

EVA 2000: a European/Russian space suit concept

For the European manned space activities an EVA space suit system was being developed in the frame of the Hermes Space Vehicle Programme of the European Space Agency (ESA). The space suit was to serve the needs for all relevant extravehicular activities for the Hermes Columbus operations planned to begin in 2004. For the present Russian manned space programme the relevant EVAs are performed by the Orlan-DMA semi-rigid space suit. The origin of its development reaches back to the 1970s and has since been adapted to cover the needs for extravehicular activities on Salyut and MIR until today. The latest modification of the space suit, which guaranteed its completely self-contained operation, was made in 1988. However, Russian specialists considered it necessary to start developing an EVA space suit of a new generation, which would have improved performance and would cover the needs by the turn of the century and into the beginning of the next century. Potentially these two suit developments could have a lot in common based on similarities in present concepts. As future manned space activities become more and more an international effort, a safe and reliable interoperability of the different space suit systems is required. Based on the results of the Munich Minister Conference in 1991, the European Space Agency and the Russian Space Agency agreed to initiate a requirements analysis and conceptual design study to determine the feasibility of a joint space suit development, EVA 2000. The design philosophy for the EVA 2000 study was oriented on a space suit system design of: space suit commonality and interoperability; increased crew productivity and safety; increase in useful life and reduced maintainability; reduced development and production cost. The EVA 2000 feasibility study was performed in 1992, and with the positive conclusions for EVA 2000, this approach became the new joint European Russian EVA Suit 2000 Development Programme. This paper gives an overview of the results of the feasibility study and presents the joint requirements and the proposed design concept of a jointly developed European Russian space suit.     

Suited crewmember productivity

Analysis of the extravehicular activity (EVA) sortie experience gained in the former Soviet Union and physiologic hygienic aspect of space suit design and development shows that crewmember productivity is related to the following main factors: -space suit microclimate (gas composition, pressure and temperature); -limitation of motion activity and perception, imposed by the space suit; -good crewmember training in the ground training program; -level of crewmember general physical performance capabilities in connection with mission duration and intervals between sorties; -individual EVA experience (with accumulation) at which workmanship improves, while metabolism, physical and emotional stress decreases; -concrete EVA duration and work rate; -EVA bioengineering, including selection of tools, work station, EVA technology and mechanization.     

Metabolic assessments during extra-vehicular activity

Extra-vehicular activity (EVA) has a significant role during extended space flights. It demonstrates that humans can survive and perform useful work outside the Orbital Space Stations (OSS) while wearing protective space suits (SS). When the International Space Station 'Alpha' (ISSA) is fully operational, EVA assembly, installation, maintenance and repair operations will become an everyday repetitive work activity in space. It needs new ergonomic evaluation of the work/rest schedule for an increasing of the labor amount per EVA hour. The metabolism assessment is a helpful method to control the productivity of the EVA astronaut and to optimize the work/rest regime. Three following methods were used in Russia to estimate real-time metabolic rates during EVA: 1. Oxygen consumption, computed from the pressure drop in a high pressure bottle per unit time (with actual thermodynamic oxygen properties under high pressure and oxygen leakage taken into account). 2. Carbon dioxide production, computed from CO2 concentration at the contaminant control cartridge and gas flow rate in the life support subsystem closed loop (nominal mode) or gas leakage in the SS open loop (emergency mode). 3. Heat removal, computed from the difference between the temperatures of coolant water or gas and its flow rate in a unit of time (with assumed humidity and wet oxygen state taken into account). Comparison of heat removal values with metabolic rates enables us to determine the thermal balance during an operative medical control of EVA at "Salyut-6", "Salyut-7" and "Mir" OSS. Complex analysis of metabolism, body temperature and heat rate supports a differential diagnosis between emotional and thermal components of stress during EVA. It gives a prognosis of human homeostasis during EVA. Available information has been acquired into an EVA data base which is an effective tool for ergonomical optimization.     

Yuanzheng 3 Upper Stage

Upper stage is an indispensable vehicle in the space transportation system.For its role in multi-satellite transportation area in China,the development of the Yuanzheng 3 upper stage was approved.The article introduces in detail the Yuanzheng 3 upper stage development requirements,task definition and systems as well as main features and performance including payload capacity and insertion accuracy for typical orbits,interfaces with satellites.The article also presents the development cycle of Yuanzheng 3 upper stage,which is divided into 3 stages including concept demonstration stage,prototype stage and flight proof stage.The Yuanzheng 3 upper stage,which will make its maiden flight in 2018,is capable of restarting more than 20 times,and operating for more than 48 hours.It is equivalent to mainstream upper stages in the world in terms of performance,such as restart times,in-orbit operation time,independent digital control system,and adaptable behavior for various tasks.Technologies tackled and accumulated in the development of the Yuanzheng 3 upper stage will lay a solid foundation for the development of future space transportation vehicles.     

Energy utilization rates during shuttle extravehicular activities

The work rates or energy utilization rates during EVA are major factors in sizing of life support systems. These rates also provide a measure of ease of EVA and its cost in crew fatigue. From the first Shuttle EVA on the STS-6 mission in 1983, we have conducted 59 man-EVA and 341 man-hours of EVA. Energy utilization rates have been measured on each of these EVA. Metabolic rate was measured during each EVA using oxygen utilization corrected for suit leakage. From 1981–1987, these data were available for average data over the EVA or over large segments of the EVA. Since 1987, EVA oxygen utilization data were available at 2-minute intervals. The average metabolic rate on Shuttle EVA (194 kcal/hr.) has been significantly lower than metabolic rates during Apollo and Skylab missions. Peak rates have been below design levels, infrequent, and of short duration. The data suggest that the energy cost of tasks may be inversely related to the degree of training for the task. The data provide insight on the safety margins provided by life support designs and on the energy cost of Station construction EVA.     

Main problems of the Russian Orlan-M space suit utilization for EVAs on the ISS

In the recent years the Russian Orlan-M space suits have been improved as applied to their operational requirements for the ISS. A special attention is paid to enhancement of EVA crew efficiency and safety. The paper considers the main problems regarding specific features of the Russian space suit operation in the ISS, and analyses measures on their solution. In particular, the problems associated with the following are considered: enhancement of the anthropometric range for the EVA crewmembers; use of some US EMU elements and unified NASA equipment elements; Orlan-M operation support in the wide range of the ISS thermal conditions; use of Simplified Aid For Extravehicular activity Rescue (SAFER) designed as a self-rescue device, which will be used for an EVA crewmember return in the event that he (she) breaks away inadvertently from the ISS surface. The paper states the main space suit differences with reference to solution of the above problems. The paper presents briefly the design of space suit arms developed for crewmembers with small anthropometric parameters, as well as peculiarities and test results for the gloves with enhanced thermal protection. Measures on further space suit development with the purpose to improve its performances are considered.