Did mineral surface chemistry and toxicity contribute to evolution of microbial extracellular polymeric substances?

Abstract Modern ecological niches are teeming with an astonishing diversity of microbial life in biofilms closely associated with mineral surfaces, which highlights the remarkable success of microorganisms in conquering the challenges and capitalizing on the benefits presented by the mineral-water interface. Biofilm formation capability likely evolved on early Earth because biofilms provide crucial cell survival functions. The potential toxicity of mineral surfaces toward cells and the complexities of the mineral-water-cell interface in determining the toxicity mechanisms, however, have not been fully appreciated. Here, we report a previously unrecognized role for extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), which form biofilms in shielding cells against the toxicity of mineral surfaces. Using colony plating and LIVE/DEAD staining methods in oxide suspensions versus oxide-free controls, we found greater viability of wild-type, EPS-producing strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 compared to their isogenic knockout mutant with defective biofilm-producing capacity. Oxide toxicity was specific to its surface charge and particle size. High resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) images and assays for highly reactive oxygen species (hROS) on mineral surfaces suggested that EPS shield via both physical and chemical mechanisms. Intriguingly, qualitative as well as quantitative measures of EPS production showed that toxic minerals induced EPS production in bacteria. By determining the specific toxicity mechanisms, we provide insight into the potential impact of mineral surfaces in promoting increased complexity of cell surfaces, including EPS and biofilm formation, on early Earth. Key Words: Mineral toxicity-Bacteria-EPS evolution-Biofilms-Cytotoxicity-Silica-Anatase-Alumina. Astrobiology 12, 785-798.     

Formation of replicating saponite from a gel in the presence of oxalate: implications for the formation of clay minerals in carbonaceous chondrites and the origin of life

The potential role of clay minerals in the abiotic origin of life has been the subject of ongoing debate for the past several decades. At issue are the clay minerals found in a class of meteorites known as carbonaceous chondrites. These clay minerals are the product of aqueous alteration of anhydrous mineral phases, such as olivine and orthopyroxene, that are often present in the chondrules. Moreover, there is a strong correlation in the occurrence of clay minerals and the presence of polar organic molecules. It has been shown in laboratory experiments at low temperature and ambient pressure that polar organic molecules, such as the oxalate found in meteorites, can catalyze the crystallization of clay minerals. In this study, we show that oxalate is a robust catalyst in the crystallization of saponite, an Al- and Mg-rich, trioctahedral 2:1 layer silicate, from a silicate gel at 60°C and ambient pressure. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy analysis of the saponite treated with octadecylammonium (n(C)=18) cations revealed the presence of 2:1 layer structures that have variable interlayer charge. The crystallization of these differently charged 2:1 layer silicates most likely occurred independently. The fact that 2:1 layer silicates with variable charge formed in the same gel has implications for our understanding of the origin of life, as these 2:1 clay minerals most likely replicate by a mechanism of template-catalyzed polymerization and transmit the charge distribution from layer to layer. If polar organic molecules like oxalate can catalyze the formation of clay-mineral crystals, which in turn promote clay microenvironments and provide abundant adsorption sites for other organic molecules present in solution, the interaction among these adsorbed molecules could lead to the polymerization of more complex organic molecules like RNA from nucleotides on early Earth.     

Lava cave microbial communities within mats and secondary mineral deposits: implications for life detection on other planets

Lava caves contain a wealth of yellow, white, pink, tan, and gold-colored microbial mats; but in addition to these clearly biological mats, there are many secondary mineral deposits that are nonbiological in appearance. Secondary mineral deposits examined include an amorphous copper-silicate deposit (Hawai'i) that is blue-green in color and contains reticulated and fuzzy filament morphologies. In the Azores, lava tubes contain iron-oxide formations, a soft ooze-like coating, and pink hexagons on basaltic glass, while gold-colored deposits are found in lava caves in New Mexico and Hawai'i. A combination of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and molecular techniques was used to analyze these communities. Molecular analyses of the microbial mats and secondary mineral deposits revealed a community that contains 14 phyla of bacteria across three locations: the Azores, New Mexico, and Hawai'i. Similarities exist between bacterial phyla found in microbial mats and secondary minerals, but marked differences also occur, such as the lack of Actinobacteria in two-thirds of the secondary mineral deposits. The discovery that such deposits contain abundant life can help guide our detection of life on extraterrestrial bodies.     

Mineralogical biosignatures and the search for life on Mars

If life ever existed, or still exists, on Mars, its record is likely to be found in minerals formed by, or in association with, microorganisms. An important concept regarding interpretation of the mineralogical record for evidence of life is that, broadly defined, life perturbs disequilibria that arise due to kinetic barriers and can impart unexpected structure to an abiotic system. Many features of minerals and mineral assemblages may serve as biosignatures even if life does not have a familiar terrestrial chemical basis. Biological impacts on minerals and mineral assemblages may be direct or indirect. Crystalline or amorphous biominerals, an important category of mineralogical biosignatures, precipitate under direct cellular control as part of the life cycle of the organism (shells, tests, phytoliths) or indirectly when cell surface layers provide sites for heterogeneous nucleation. Biominerals also form indirectly as by-products of metabolism due to changing mineral solubility. Mineralogical biosignatures include distinctive mineral surface structures or chemistry that arise when dissolution and/or crystal growth kinetics are influenced by metabolic by-products. Mineral assemblages themselves may be diagnostic of the prior activity of organisms where barriers to precipitation or dissolution of specific phases have been overcome. Critical to resolving the question of whether life exists, or existed, on Mars is knowing how to distinguish biologically induced structure and organization patterns from inorganic phenomena and inorganic self-organization. This task assumes special significance when it is acknowledged that the majority of, and perhaps the only, material to be returned from Mars will be mineralogical.     

Application of hyperspectral infrared analysis of hydrothermal alteration on Earth and Mars

An integrated analysis of both airborne and field short-wave infrared hyperspectral measurements was used in conjunction with conventional field mapping techniques to map hydrothermal alteration in the central portion of the Mount Painter Inlier in the Flinders Ranges, South Australia. The airborne hyperspectral data show the spatial distribution of spectrally distinct minerals occurring as primary minerals and as weathering and alteration products. Field spectral measurements, taken with a portable infrared mineral analyzer spectrometer and supported by thin-section analyses, were used to verify the mineral maps and enhance the level of information obtainable from the airborne data. Hydrothermal alteration zones were identified and mapped separately from the background weathering signals. A main zone of alteration, coinciding with the Paralana Fault zone, was recognized, and found to contain kaolinite, muscovite, biotite, and K-feldspar. A small spectral variation associated with a ring-like feature around Mount Painter was tentatively determined to be halloysite and interpreted to represent a separate hydrothermal fluid and fluid source, and probably a separate system. The older parts of the alteration system are tentatively dated as Permo-Carboniferous. The remote sensing of alteration at Mount Painter confirms that hyperspectral imaging techniques can produce accurate mineralogical maps with significant details that can be used to identify and map hydrothermal activity. Application of hyperspectral surveys such as that conducted at Mount Painter would be likely to provide similar detail about putative hydrothermal deposits on Mars.     

Astrobiological considerations for the selection of the geological filters on the ExoMars PanCam instrument

The Panoramic Camera (PanCam) instrument will provide visible-near IR multispectral imaging of the ExoMars rover's surroundings to identify regions of interest within the nearby terrain. This multispectral capability is dependant upon the 12 preselected "geological" filters that are integrated into two wide-angle cameras. First devised by the Imager for Mars Pathfinder team to detect iron oxides, this baseline filter set has remained largely unchanged for subsequent missions (Mars Exploration Rovers, Beagle 2, Phoenix) despite the advancing knowledge of the mineralogical diversity on Mars. Therefore, the geological filters for the ExoMars PanCam will be redesigned to accommodate the astrobiology focus of ExoMars, where hydrated mineral terrains (evidence of past liquid water) will be priority targets. Here, we conduct an initial investigation into new filter wavelengths for the ExoMars PanCam and present results from tests performed on Mars analog rocks. Two new filter sets were devised: one with filters spaced every 50?nm ("F1-12") and another that utilizes a novel filter selection method based upon hydrated mineral reflectance spectra ("F2-12"). These new filter sets, along with the Beagle 2 filter set (currently the baseline for the ExoMars PanCam), were tested on their ability to identify hydrated minerals and biosignatures present in Mars analog rocks. The filter sets, with varying degrees of ability, detected the spectral features of minerals jarosite, opaline silica, alunite, nontronite, and siderite present in these rock samples. None of the filter sets, however, were able to detect fossilized biomat structures and small (<2?mm) mineralogical heterogeneities present in silica sinters. Both new filter sets outperformed the Beagle 2 filters, with F2-12 detecting the most spectral features produced by hydrated minerals and providing the best discrimination between samples. Future work involving more extensive testing on Mars analog samples that exhibit a wider range of mineralogies would be the next step in carefully evaluating the new filter sets.     

Biomedical analysis of rat body hair after hindlimb suspension for 14 days

The levels of 26 minerals in rat body hair were analyzed in control and hindlimb-suspended Wistar Hannover rats (n=5 each). We quantified the levels of 22 minerals in this experiment. However, we were unable to measure the levels of 4 minerals (Be, V, Cd, and Hg) quantitatively because they were below the limit of detection. Of the 22 quantified, the levels of 19 minerals were not significantly different between control and hindlimb-suspended groups. The levels of 3 minerals (Pb, Cr, and Al) tended to be higher in the hindlimb-suspended group than in the control group; however, this difference was not significant. The concentrations of 3 other minerals (I, K, and Mg) were significantly different between the 2 groups. The iodine (I) level was 58.2% higher in the hindlimb-suspended group than in the control group (P<0.05). Potassium (K) and magnesium (Mg) levels were 55.2% and 20.4% lower, respectively, in the experimental group (P<0.05 in both cases).These results indicate that a physiological change in mineral metabolism resulting from physical or mental stress, such as hindlimb suspension, is reflected in body hair. The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) has initiated a human research study to investigate the effects of long-term space flight on gene expression and mineral metabolism by analyzing hair samples of astronauts who stayed in the International Space Station (ISS) for 6 months. We believe that hindlimb suspension for 14 days can simulate the effects of an extremely severe environment, such as space flight, because the hindlimb suspension model elicits a rapid physiological change in skeletal muscle, bone, and fluid shift even in the short term. These results also suggest that we can detect various effects on the body by analyzing the human scalp hair shaft.     

Serpentinization and its implications for life on the early Earth and Mars

Ophiolites, sections of ocean crust tectonically displaced onto land, offer significant potential to support chemolithoautotrophic life through the provision of energy and reducing power during aqueous alteration of their highly reduced mineralogies. There is substantial chemical disequilibrium between the primary olivine and pyroxene mineralogy of these ophiolites and the fluids circulating through them. This disequilibrium represents a potential source of chemical energy that could sustain life. Moreover, E (h)-pH conditions resulting from rock- water interactions in ultrabasic rocks are conducive to important abiotic processes antecedent to the origin of life. Serpentinization--the reaction of olivine- and pyroxene-rich rocks with water--produces magnetite, hydroxide, and serpentine minerals, and liberates molecular hydrogen, a source of energy and electrons that can be readily utilized by a broad array of chemosynthetic organisms. These systems are viewed as important analogs for potential early ecosystems on both Earth and Mars, where highly reducing mineralogy was likely widespread in an undifferentiated crust. Secondary phases precipitated during serpentinization have the capability to preserve organic or mineral biosignatures. We describe the petrology and mineral chemistry of an ophiolite-hosted cold spring in northern California and propose criteria to aid in the identification of serpentinizing terranes on Mars that have the potential to harbor chemosynthetic life.     

键合剂与粘合剂的匹配性研究

运用单向拉伸和扫描电镜表征了TEA、BAG—7、BAG—22及BAG—24等多种键合剂在HTPB和784两种粘合剂推进剂中的效能;采用化学分析、红外分析、差热分析等手段,研究了HTPB和784两种粘合剂对键合剂效能的影响。结果表明,键合剂的效能与键合剂和粘合剂的互溶性、粘合剂的链段结构、粘合剂的活性基团和固化剂的反应速度及它们的相互作用等方面,有强烈的相关性。     

Subsurface filamentous fabrics: an evaluation of origins based on morphological and geochemical criteria, with implications for exopaleontology

The fossil record of the subsurface biosphere is sparse. Results obtained on subsurface filamentous fabrics (SFF) from >225 paleosubsurface sites in volcanics, oxidized ores, and paleokarst of subrecent to Proterozoic age are presented. SFF are mineral encrustations on filamentous or fibrous substrates that formed in subsurface environments. SFF occur in association with low-temperature aqueous mineral assemblages and consist of tubular, micron-thick (median 1.6 micron) filaments in high spatial density, which occur as irregular masses, matted fabrics, and vertically draped features that resemble stalactites. Micron-sized filamentous centers rule out a stalactitic origin. Morphometric analysis of SFF filamentous forms demonstrates that their shape more closely resembles microbial filaments than fibrous minerals. Abiogenic filament-like forms are considered unlikely precursors of most SFF, because abiogenic forms differ in the distribution of widths and have a lower degree of curvature and a lower number of direction changes. Elemental analyses of SFF show depletion in immobile elements (e.g., Al, Th) and a systematic enrichment in As and Sb, which demonstrates a relation to environments with high flows of water. Sulfur isotopic analyses are consistent with a biological origin of a SFF sample from a Mississippi Valley-Type deposit, which is consistent with data in the literature. Fe isotopes in SFF and active analogue systems, however, allow no discrimination between biogenic and abiogenic origins. The origin of most SFF is explained as permineralized remains of microbial filaments that possibly record rapid growth during phases of high water flow that released chemical energy. It is possible that some SFF formed due to encrustation of mineral fibers. SFF share similarities with Microcodium from soil environments. SFF are a logical target in the search for past life on Mars. The macroscopic nature of many SFF allows for their relatively easy in situ recognition and targeting for more detailed microstructural and geochemical analysis.     

Chemotrophic filamentous microfossils from the Hollard Mound (Devonian, Morocco) as investigated by focused ion beam

The biologic origin of objects with microbe-like morphologies from the oldest preserved terrestrial sedimentary rocks remains a matter of controversy. Their biogenicity has been questioned, as well as the claim that they are convincing evidence of early life. Though minerals with microbe-like morphologies represent ambiguous evidence of life, they are, in a number of conditions, the only achievable information. In this study, the focused ion beam (FIB) electron microscopy technique was used for nano and micrometer-scale high-resolution imaging and in situ microsectioning of filamentous microfossils. The structural elements of these filaments, their spatial relationships with the host rock, and artifacts produced by alteration of the original morphology due to laboratory sample processing have been clearly defined. The in situ sectioning provided a means by which to investigate surface and subsurface microstructures and perform different analytical techniques on the same object, which minimizes sample destruction and avoids excessive manual handling and exposure of the specimen during analysis. Improvement in the morphological and compositional evaluation of the filaments has facilitated the development of a hypothesis regarding the metabolic pathway of the filamentous microfossils preserved in the Middle Devonian-aged Hollard Mound deposit, Anti-Atlas, Morocco. The results of this study demonstrate the potential of the FIB/SEM (scanning electron microscopy) system for detecting microbial-scale morphologies.     

Mineral-enhanced hydrothermal oligopeptide formation at the second time scale

Accumulation of biopolymers should have been an essential step for the emergence of life on primitive Earth. However, experimental simulations for submarine hydrothermal vent systems in which high-temperature water spouts through minerals within a short time scale have not been attempted. Here, we show that enhancement of hydrothermal oligopeptide elongation by naturally occurring minerals was successfully verified for the first time by using a mineral-mediated hydrothermal flow reactor system (MMHF). MMHF consists of a narrow tubular reactor packed with mineral particles, and the enhancement or inhibitory activities of 10 types of naturally occurring minerals were successfully evaluated for an elongation reaction from (Ala)(4) to (Ala)(5) and higher oligopeptides in the absence of condensation reagents. It was unexpected that calcite and dolomite facilitated the elongation from (Ala)(4) to (Ala)(5) and higher oligopeptides with 28% yield at pH 7, while tourmaline, galena, apatite, mica, sphalerite, quartz, chalcopyrite, and pyrite did not show enhancement activities. These facts suggest the importance of carbonate minerals for the accumulation of peptide in primitive Earth environments.     

Searching for biosignatures using electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) analysis of manganese oxides

Manganese oxide (Mn oxide) minerals from bacterial sources produce electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectral signatures that are mostly distinct from those of synthetic simulants and abiogenic mineral Mn oxides. Biogenic Mn oxides exhibit only narrow EPR spectral linewidths (～500 G), whereas abiogenic Mn oxides produce spectral linewidths that are 2-6 times broader and range from 1200 to 3000 G. This distinction is consistent with X-ray structural observations that biogenic Mn oxides have abundant layer site vacancies and edge terminations and are mostly of single ionic species [i.e., Mn(IV)], all of which favor narrow EPR linewidths. In contrast, abiogenic Mn oxides have fewer lattice vacancies, larger particle sizes, and mixed ionic species [Mn(III) and Mn(IV)], which lead to the broader linewidths. These properties could be utilized in the search for extraterrestrial physicochemical biosignatures, for example, on Mars missions that include a miniature version of an EPR spectrometer.     

Silicifying biofilm exopolymers on a hot-spring microstromatolite: templating nanometer-thick laminae

Exopolymeric substances (EPS) are an integral component of microbial biofilms; however, few studies have addressed their silicification and preservation in hot-spring deposits. Through comparative analyses with the use of a range of microscopy techniques, we identified abundant EPS significant to the textural development of spicular, microstromatolitic, siliceous sinter at Champagne Pool, Waiotapu, New Zealand. Examination of biofilms coating sinter surfaces by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM), cryo-scanning electron microscopy (cryo-SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed contraction of the gelatinous EPS matrix into films (approximately 10 nm thick) or fibrillar structures, which is common in conventional SEM analyses and analogous to products of naturally occurring desiccation. Silicification of fibrillar EPS contributed to the formation of filamentous sinter. Matrix surfaces or dehydrated films templated sinter laminae (nanometers to microns thick) that, in places, preserved fenestral voids beneath. Laminae of similar thickness are, in general, common to spicular geyserites. This is the first report to demonstrate EPS templation of siliceous stromatolite laminae. Considering the ubiquity of biofilms on surfaces in hot-spring environments, EPS silicification studies are likely to be important to a better understanding of the origins of laminae in other modern and ancient stromatolitic sinters, and EPS potentially may serve as biosignatures in extraterrestrial rocks.     

Experimental hypervelocity impacts: Implication for the analysis of material retrieved after exposure to space environment: Part I. Impacts on aluminium targets

During the last three decades a wide variety of surfaces have been brought back to Earth after being exposed to space environment. The impact features found on these surfaces are used to evaluate the damages caused to spacecraft and can give clues to the characteristics of the orbital debris and meteoroids that created them. In order to derive more precisely the particle parameters and to improve the analysis of projectile remnants, we have performed an extensive analysis of craters caused by the impact of high velocity particles on thick ductile targets, using a micro-particle accelerator. We show that from the geometry of the craters and from the analysis of the remnants it is possible to derive the main characteristics of the projectiles. In particular, using up-to-date instrumentation, scanning electron microscope (SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectrometer, we found that even small residues inside craters can be identified. However, this study shows that a velocity resolution better than 1 km/s would be appropriate to obtain a fair calibration of the impact processes on a ductile target. This would allow to decipher with precision impact features on ductile surfaces exposed to space environment.     

Fluid inclusion studies of chemosynthetic carbonates: strategy for seeking life on Mars

Fluid inclusions in minerals hold the potential to provide important data on the chemistry of the ambient fluids during mineral precipitation. Especially interesting to astrobiologists are inclusions in low-temperature minerals that may have been precipitated in the presence of microorganisms. We demonstrate that it is possible to obtain data from inclusions in chemosynthetic carbonates that precipitated by the oxidation of organic carbon around methane-bearing seepages. Chemosynthetic carbonates have been identified as a target rock for astrobiological exploration. Other surficial rock types identified as targets for astrobiological exploration include hydrothermal deposits, speleothems, stromatolites, tufas, and evaporites, each of which can contain fluid inclusions. Fracture systems below impact craters would also contain precipitates of minerals with fluid inclusions. As fluid inclusions are sealed microchambers, they preserve fluids in regions where water is now absent, such as regions of the martian surface. Although most inclusions are < 5 microns, the possibility to obtain data from the fluids, including biosignatures and physical remains of life, underscores the advantages of technological advances in the study of fluid inclusions. The crushing of bulk samples could release inclusion waters for analysis, which could be undertaken in situ on Mars.     

Lichens survive in space: results from the 2005 LICHENS experiment

This experiment was aimed at establishing, for the first time, the survival capability of lichens exposed to space conditions. In particular, the damaging effect of various wavelengths of extraterrestrial solar UV radiation was studied. The lichens used were the bipolar species Rhizocarpon geographicum and Xanthoria elegans, which were collected above 2000 m in the mountains of central Spain and as endolithic communities inhabiting granites in the Antarctic Dry Valleys. Lichens were exposed to space in the BIOPAN-5 facility of the European Space Agency; BIOPAN-5 is located on the outer shell of the Earth-orbiting FOTON-M2 Russian satellite. The lichen samples were launched from Baikonur by a Soyuz rocket on May 31, 2005, and were returned to Earth after 16 days in space, at which time they were tested for survival. Chlorophyll fluorescence was used for the measurement of photosynthetic parameters. Scanning electron microscopy in back-scattered mode, low temperature scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy were used to study the organization and composition of both symbionts. Confocal laser scanning microscopy, in combination with the use of specific fluorescent probes, allowed for the assessment of the physiological state of the cells. All exposed lichens, regardless of the optical filters used, showed nearly the same photosynthetic activity after the flight as measured before the flight. Likewise, the multimicroscopy approach revealed no detectable ultrastructural changes in most of the algal and fungal cells of the lichen thalli, though a greater proportion of cells in the flight samples had compromised membranes, as revealed by the LIVE/DEAD BacLight Bacterial Viability Kit. These findings indicate that most lichenized fungal and algal cells can survive in space after full exposure to massive UV and cosmic radiation, conditions proven to be lethal to bacteria and other microorganisms. The lichen upper cortex seems to provide adequate protection against solar radiation. Moreover, after extreme dehydration induced by high vacuum, the lichens proved to be able to recover, in full, their metabolic activity within 24 hours.     

Microbially induced iron precipitation associated with a neutrophilic spring at Borra Caves, Vishakhapatnam, India

The present investigation uncovers various pieces of evidence for the possible biologically induced mineralization in iron mats associated with a pH-neutral spring in the Borra caves, Vishakhapatnam, India. Electron microscopy [scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM)] demonstrated large numbers of (i) hollow tubes (diameter ～1?μm) resembling sheaths of the iron-oxidizing bacteria Leptothrix, (ii) thin (diameter <1?μm) solid fibers of uncertain origin, (iii) nanoscale subspherical to irregularly shaped particles encrusting tubes and fibers, and (iv) aggregates of broken and partially disintegrated sheaths, fibers, and particles embedded in extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) occasionally including microbial cells. X-ray microanalyses by energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) revealed that the mat accumulated largely Fe but also smaller amounts of Si and traces of P and Ca. Particles rich in Si and Al (possibly kaolinite) and Ca (carbonate) were also observed. High-resolution TEM/EDS of unstained ultrathin sections suggests that microbial sheaths were highly mineralized by amorphous to cryptocrystalline Fe-rich phases and less frequently by other fine-grained and fibrous authigenic claylike minerals. Total number of microorganisms in the iron mats was 5.8×10(5) cells, g sed(-1) (wet weight). Analysis of the 16S rRNA gene diversity revealed microorganisms assigned to eight different phyla [Proteobacteria (62%), Chloroflexi (8%), Bacteroidetes (7%), Planctomycetes (1%), Actinobacteria (5%), Acidobacteria (6%), Nitrospira (1%), Firmicutes (5%)]. Within the Proteobacteria, Betaproteobacteria was the predominant class, which accounted for 28% of the sequences. Within this class some obvious similarities between the obtained sequences and sequences from other cave systems could be seen, especially sequences affiliated with Leptothrix, Siderooxidans, Crenothrix, Comamonadaceae, Dechloromonas, and many uncultured Betaproteobacteria. Four (4%) of the sequences could not be assigned to phylum level but were affiliating with the candidate division TM7 (2%), candidate division OP11 (1%), and candidate division WWE3 (1%). The results allow us to infer a possible relationship of microbial sheaths, EPS, and the iron precipitates to microbial community diversity in the Borra cave springs. Understanding biogenic iron oxides in caves has important astrobiological applications as it provides a potential tool for the detection of extraterrestrial life.     

GAP基含能聚氨酯弹性体包覆RDX的研究

为了以较小的能量损失获得低感度的包覆RDX,采用液相沉淀法,以GAP基含能聚氨酯弹性体对RDX进行了包覆研究。通过傅立叶红外光谱(FTIR)、扫描电镜(SEM)、X射线光电子能谱(XPS)、差示扫描量热法(DSC)、有机元素分析、感度测试、流散性测试等方法对包覆样品进行了表征。结果表明,包覆样品颗粒表面有明显包覆层存在,颗粒流散性较包覆前有所提高,包覆度R为72.5%,包覆层质量分数为0.98%,与投料值1%基本相当;热分解峰温较包覆前有所降低;包覆样品的FTIR谱图中在2 100 cm-1附近含有明显的—N3吸收峰,且峰形尖锐;以1%GAP基聚氨酯弹性体包覆的RDX的特性落高从包覆前的25.6 cm提高到47.9 cm,增加近1倍;摩擦感度爆炸百分数从72%下降到40%。     

满足电子枪电场与电子束参数优化的极板个数确定

为保证透射电子显微镜的电子枪输出电子束符合要求,研究极板个数对电子枪电场与电子束的影响。通过计算机建模和仿真分析,探究不同极板个数（N）下的电子加速效果、电场强度及电子束质量。结果表明,在N=6时,电场强度平均值高、均匀度好,电子在相同加速电压作用下具有最高速度,电子束聚焦性能较好。极板个数最佳值的确定,可为电子枪的具体结构设计提供参考和依据。