Fluid dynamics of unsteady separated flow. Part II. Lifting surfaces

In the quest for increased maneuverability advanced aircraft have to operate at high angles of attack where the aerodynamics are dominated by the effects of separated flow. Likewise, winged space vehicles, such as the space shuttle orbiter, also fly at high incidence during re-entry in order to restrict heating to the windward side, thereby minimizing heat shield requirements. Thus, the vehicle designer needs to be able to assess what effects the separated flow will have, especially on the vehicle dynamics, as these effects are often adverse and always of large magnitude relative to the attached flow aerodynamics. In spite of rapid development of computational means, purely theoretical methods for prediction of the effect of separated flow on rigid and elastic vehicle dynamics are not presently available, and will not be for some time. To compound the problem for the vehicle designer, dynamic simulation in an experiment requires the testing to be performed at full scale Reynolds number. The present paper shows a practical solution to this dilemma. An analytic method is described that uses static experimental data to predict the separated flow effect on rigid and elastic vehicle dynamics. Key parameters in the analytic relationship between steady and non-steady aerodynamics are the following: (1) The time lag occurring before a change of flow conditions can affect the separation-induced aerodynamic loads. (2) The accelerated flow effect, i.e. the pressure gradient lag relative to the static aerodynamic characteristics. (3) The moving wall effect, i.e. the effect of the non-steady boundary condition at the vehicle surface. Using the existing experimental data base an analytic theory is formulated that can predict the separation-induced unsteady aerodynamics if the static characteristics are known from theory or experiment.     

Challenges in high-alpha vehicle dynamics

The evolution of aerospace vehicles towards ever-increasing maneuverability, including flight at high angles of attack and vehicle motions of large amplitudes and high angular rates, has led to the need for prediction of vehicle aerodynamics that are dominated by unsteady separated flow effects. The existing data base is reviewed to determine to what degree the following critical issues are understood: 1. Cause and effect of asymmetric forebody flow separation with associated vortices. 2. Cause of slender wing rock. 3. Effect of vehicle motion on dynamic airfoil stall. 4. Extrapolation from subscale tests to full-scale free flight. To extend the present knowledge to include the coupling existing between novel aerodynamic controls and the vehicle dynamics is the challenge facing designers of future agile aircraft operating at high angles of attack.     

面向复杂构型飞机的非定常气动力建模与辨识

不论是现代高机动隐身战斗机的设计需求还是常规布局飞机的飞行动力学分析,深入研究大迎角飞行时的非线性非定常气动力模型都极其重要。基于纵向运动小振幅及大振幅强迫振荡试验数据,分析了常规稳定导数模型的准确性,并从导数模型出发发展了简化涡流和分离流时间迟滞效应的非定常气动力线性模型和非线性模型,最后应用风洞典型机动历程模拟试验验证了模型的有效性。结果表明：对于复杂构型高机动飞机模型,发展并改进的非线性微分方程模型可以准确预测飞机不同机动下的非定常气动力特性,具有较强的工程可行性。     

某运载火箭级间分离喷流干扰风洞试验研究

对某运载火箭级间分离特性进行了风洞试验研究,内流采用冷喷流模拟技术,获得了助推器与芯级同时分离和助推器先分离时,两级在有、无喷流、同轴变迎角情况下的气动力系数,试验结果表明,助推器与芯级同时分离和助推器先分离两种情况下,一、二级箭体各自的气动力系数变化很小,这说明助推器与芯级同时分离的方案是可行的。风洞试验研究结果为运载火箭级间分离方案设计和火箭控制系统参数设计提供了依据。     

高机动导弹气动／运动／控制耦合的风洞虚拟飞行试验技术

解决先进飞行器大迎角高机动飞行时的气动／运动非线性耦合问题,需要发展基于非线性理论的风洞试验技术,即风洞虚拟飞行试验技术。该试验能够实现较为逼真的模拟飞行器机动运动过程,气动和运动参数的实时同步测量,以及飞行控制律的集成验证与优化,从而达到探索气动／运动耦合特性和机理的目的。本文介绍了风洞虚拟飞行试验的模拟方法、关键技术及其解决措施,并针对典型导弹模型开展了虚拟飞行验证试验。试验结果表明：目前已经初步具备适用于导弹模型跨声速气动／运动／飞行控制一体化研究的风洞虚拟飞行试验能力。     

弹性飞行器飞行载荷与动态特性分析

在综合考虑了刚体运动自由度和弹性自由度的弹性飞行器运动方程的基础上 ,采用了线性气动力的影响系数形式 ,提出了一套飞行载荷与动态特性分析的方程和方法 ,用于解决飞行力学和气动弹性力学中的静气动弹性发散、配平与结构变形、气动载荷分布、颤振与飞行动态特性等问题。算例表明 ,该方法有效可行 ,且对于大柔性飞行器 ,刚体运动模态与弹性模态之间的耦合是显著的 ,应予以重视。     

弹性飞行器非定常气动力的递推识别

本文提出了一种识别弹性飞行器非定常气动力的滤波递推方法。该法由飞行试验数据识别出各气动指示函数的时域离散值,若经适当拟合处理,可为弹性飞行器动态分析提供较为理想的非定常气动模态。对某飞行器进行初步试算的结果表明,该方法所需数据易于采集,计算不十分繁杂,所得结果较好。     

Unsteady aerodynamics and flow control for flapping wing flyers

The creation of micro air vehicles (MAVs) of the same general sizes and weight as natural fliers has spawned renewed interest in flapping wing flight. With a wingspan of approximately 15 cm and a flight speed of a few meters per second, MAVs experience the same low Reynolds number (10⁴–10⁵) flight conditions as their biological counterparts. In this flow regime, rigid fixed wings drop dramatically in aerodynamic performance while flexible flapping wings gain efficacy and are the preferred propulsion method for small natural fliers. Researchers have long realized that steady-state aerodynamics does not properly capture the physical phenomena or forces present in flapping flight at this scale. Hence, unsteady flow mechanisms must dominate this regime. Furthermore, due to the low flight speeds, any disturbance such as gusts or wind will dramatically change the aerodynamic conditions around the MAV. In response, a suitable feedback control system and actuation technology must be developed so that the wing can maintain its aerodynamic efficiency in this extremely dynamic situation; one where the unsteady separated flow field and wing structure are tightly coupled and interact nonlinearly. For instance, birds and bats control their flexible wings with muscle tissue to successfully deal with rapid changes in the flow environment. Drawing from their example, perhaps MAVs can use lightweight actuators in conjunction with adaptive feedback control to shape the wing and achieve active flow control. This article first reviews the scaling laws and unsteady flow regime constraining both biological and man-made fliers. Then a summary of vortex dominated unsteady aerodynamics follows. Next, aeroelastic coupling and its effect on lift and thrust are discussed. Afterwards, flow control strategies found in nature and devised by man to deal with separated flows are examined. Recent work is also presented in using microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) actuators and angular speed variation to achieve active flow control for MAVs. Finally, an explanation for aerodynamic gains seen in flexible versus rigid membrane wings, derived from an unsteady three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics model with an integrated distributed control algorithm, is presented.     

非定常气动力作用下弹性飞行器的稳定性及耦合特性

本文对所建立的弹性飞行器非定常动力学模型,以系统矩阵和返回差矩阵讨论了这类多变量模型的稳定性,由此导出定量评价弹性飞行器系统运动变量,即姿态、弹性自由度、控制及观测变量相互间的开环与闭环耦合测度,从频域的角度描述了耦合特性,具有较状态空间分析更直观、简捷的优点。文中还以算例给予了分析和验证。     

超/高超声速飞行器动态稳定性导数极快速预测方法

飞行器设计早期阶段需要预测大量工况下的动导数。本文发展了一种面向超/高超声速飞行器的动导数极快速预测方法：首先基于当地流活塞理论,将飞行器进行小幅非定常运动所受到的气动力分为受自由来流引起的无附加扰动项以及受物面变形或运动引起的附加扰动项;通过当地表面斜度法、激波后等熵关系求解物面当地流动参数,进而结合非定常运动规律求出飞行器所受非定常气动力;再采用待定系数法对非定常气动力进行提取、辨识,最终得到超/高超声速飞行器动导数。该方法克服了传统方法对CFD流场参数的依赖和耦合,具有极高的计算效率;同时典型算例验证表明,该方法在超声速、高超声速工况下都能够很好预测动导数变化趋势。将该方法应用于复杂外形飞行器动导数预测,并讨论了与CFD方法的误差来源。本文方法可作为高速飞行器总体设计阶段布局选型的工具。     

方形截面飞行器上仰机动对滚转特性影响的数值模拟

飞行器从中小迎角至大迎角范围内,由于背风区流动分离形态的演化,静态气动特性特别是横侧向气动特性也随迎角显著变化,可能诱发复杂的滚转运动。但飞行器一般是上仰机动时,才从平飞状态快速拉起至大迎角,此机动过程对横侧向气动特性和滚转运动可能产生较大影响。本文发展了刚体动力学方程和Navier-Stokes方程的松耦合求解技术,并通过数值模拟航天飞机脱落碎片的六自由度运动轨迹进行了验证。针对背风区涡流形态及横侧向气动特性复杂的方形截面飞行器,数值模拟研究了其不同迎角下的静态滚转气动特性、自由滚转运动特性,以及上仰机动时不同拉起速率对滚转运动特性的影响。结果表明,对于此飞行器,静态时存在临界迎角约为13°,当迎角小于临界迎角时,滚转方向是静不稳定的,诱发快速滚转运动;当迎角大于临界迎角时,滚转方向是静稳定的,其滚转运动是收敛的。但上仰机动时,滚转运动的形态还与拉起速率相关,即使拉起的终止迎角大于临界迎角,如果拉起速率较慢,也可能出现快速滚转运动。     

飞艇动导数与附加质量相互融合的方法

飞艇的动导数和附加质量分别表征其在有黏流和无旋无环流中所受非定常气动力/力矩。为了解决在飞艇建模中这两种气动系数的融合问题，分别研究了动导数和附加质量的成分划分问题以及同成分气动系数的融合方法。通过介绍能同时兼容有黏流和无旋无环流的气动力和力矩分析理论，得出同成分气动力/力矩融合时应当取有黏流中的结果并摒弃对应的无旋无环流结果。通过研究气动力/力矩与运动体当前运动参数的关联性，建立依据当前运动参数划分气动力/力矩或气动系数的方法。为了使两种流场中的气动系数分类方法相同，对飞艇的当前运动参数进行重构，使得气动系数在两种流场中均可按重构后运动参数明确划分和计算。根据研究结果，建立了一种动导数与附加质量的新融合方法，并讨论了它与现有文献方法的差异。通过算例分析不同融合方法对飞艇纵向扰动运动特性的影响，说明采用新融合方法的必要性。     

A review of scale effects in unsteady aerodynamics

The importance of scale effects is recognised generally in steady aerodynamics but is often ignored in unsteady aerodynamics. An attempt is made to remedy this situation by the compilation of a review of information on the influence of Reynolds number from a wide range of unsteady aerodynamic tests, with particular reference to wing flows. The unsteady tests considered are buffet and buffeting, dynamic tests of aerofoils and wings, pressure measurements, oscillatory control surface derivatives, and stability derivatives.

The review suggests that for the usual recommended model conditions with fixed transition, scale effects are small for fully-attached or well-separated flows, but may be large close to incipient separation. With fixed transition extrapolation from model to full scale Reynolds numbers is usually possible. In contrast, with free transition scale effects can be large for both attached and separated flows.

Much more research is needed into the magnitude of scale effects on unsteady flows at transonic speeds. Some test cases for the prediction of scale effects in unsteady aerodynamics are suggested. This review combines material presented by the author in Paper 3.4.1 ICAS-90 Proceedings (Stockholm) and Paper 27 AGARD CP 507 October 1991 (San Diego).     

等离子体气动激励体积力的实验研究

等离子体流动控制作为一种新概念主动流动控制技术,其物理作用依据之一是“动力效应”。体积力作为表征“动力效应”的重要参数,对研究等离子体流动控制的原理具有重要意义。介绍了实验原理及系统的基本组成,对等离子体气动激励体积力进行了实验测量。结果表明：体积力的大小在mN量级;固定激励频率,激励电压增大时,体积力增大,且线性关系非常明显;固定激励电压,体积力受激励频率的影响不大。     

PID控制器与CFD的耦合模拟技术研究及应用

飞行控制系统（FCS）与计算流体力学（CFD）的耦合求解是一个崭新的研究领域。传统的飞行控制系统的工程仿真方法依靠气动力模型或气动力数据库得到不同飞行姿态的气动力;而当前方法通过耦合求解Navier-Stokes方程和刚体动力学方程（RBD）以获取飞行器运动过程实时流场和非定常气动力。由于充分反映了气动力的非定常、非线性效应,因而从根本上保证了飞行控制系统仿真的精度。以方形截面导弹俯仰姿态控制为例,首先给出了系统的传递函数,并基于系统在单位阶跃舵偏操纵下的开环响应特性,提出了传递函数的修正方法,进而设计了该外形俯仰姿态控制的PID控制器。数值模拟了不同控制参数时,P控制器、PD控制器和PID控制器的控制效果。针对不同的控制指令,根据建立的控制律,数值模拟了飞行器在PID控制器作用下的实时响应过程,最终成功实现了对飞行器的俯仰姿态控制。研究发现,当飞行器作慢速机动时,工程仿真与CFD数值计算的结果吻合很好,两种方法可以互相验证;但快速机动时,两种方法给出的结果差异明显,基于CFD的耦合模拟方法由于模拟了飞行器运动和舵面偏转导致的非定常流动过程,其结果比基于静态气动力的工程方法的可靠性更高。在大攻角和快速机动等非定常效应较强时,采用CFD方法评估和验证飞行控制系统是很有必要的。     

变后掠变展长翼身组合体系统设计与特性分析

为了探索可变形飞行器气动、结构和控制关键技术,在可变后掠角及展长的翼身组合体风洞试验模型系统设计与特性分析方面开展了研究。系统设计包括总体方案设计、近似理论分析与计算流体力学(CFD)数值模拟、结构与控制技术集成;特性分析包括结构特性、控制特性、定常与非定常气动特性的测试及其分析。结果表明:大尺度变形能显著改变飞行器的升力、阻力和升阻比等气动特性,进而使可变形飞行器能适应多种环境和任务,因而在全飞行周期中比传统固定外形飞行器具有更优的性能。     

高超声速飞行器气动弹性力学研究综述

高超声速飞行器设计上的特点带来了一系列的气动弹性新问题。本文回顾高超声速飞行器气动弹性研究的历史与现状,着重介绍和分析了高超声速非定常气动力计算方法、热环境下的气动弹性问题、壁板颤振、推力影响下的气动弹性稳定性问题以及气动推进/气动弹性耦合的多学科交叉问题,相关的主动控制方法的研究进展亦有所介绍。在已有气动弹性问题研究发展的基础上,提出了高超声速飞行器在气动弹性领域需要解决和关注的若干问题,包括高超声速气动弹性试验、燃料消耗的质量变化对于飞行器气动弹性特性的影响以及气动弹性力学与飞行力学综合等方面。     

吸气式高超声速飞行器大迎角气动特性分析

吸气式高超声速飞行器在飞行过程中受到大气紊流等外部干扰的作用时,飞行姿态很可能会出现大迎角情况。针对大迎角飞行时飞行器可能出现的气动问题,对一种典型吸气式高超声速飞行器的流场进行了数值模拟。以雷诺平均Navier-Stokes(RANS)方程为控制方程,采用标准k-ε湍流模型求解,得到其流场特征和气动特性。重点针对大迎角情况,分别对整机气动特性、进气道性能和全动尾翼气动性能进行了分析,并结合流场特征作出解释。结果表明,机身和发动机之间存在气动/推进耦合现象。大迎角下飞行器的气动参数表现出非线性特性,升阻比减小,整机纵向表现为静不稳定,且不稳定性随迎角增大而增大;进气道性能在大迎角下降低,从而导致发动机推力下降,不利于发动机的正常工作,但却适当降低了整机的纵向静不稳定度;全动尾翼操纵效率降低从而使得配平难度增大。     

飞机大攻角空间机动气动力建模研究

 准确的气动力模型是大攻角机动仿真与控制等飞行动力学问题研究的基础。针对纵向运动建立的非线性非定常气动力微分方程模型扩展应用于一般空间运动形式,在分析大攻角非定常流动机理和试验数据的基础上,发展了一种多自由度非线性非定常气动力数学模型,并探讨了模型辨识和参数估计问题。用全机构形的大攻角动态风洞试验数据对模型进行的验证表明所发展的气动力模型能够描述大攻角气动力主要的非线性和非定常特性。     

Streamwise vortex generation by the rod

The technology development related to aerodynamics is leading to ever increasing loads of wings, airfoils and turbine and compressor blades. The increase in aerodynamic forces is often leading to flow separation and depreciation of the aerodynamic performance of flying objects or propulsion systems. Flow control methods are required to avoid these negative effects. In the recent two decades the flow control by means of air-jet vortex generators has been also intensively investigated. In this method a streamwise vortex is introduced by an oblique jet. The necessity to supply air by a pipe system may be considered a disadvantage. In order to eliminate this feature, it has been proposed to put out a rod instead of a jet. It has been shown that the application of a rod can introduce the same effect as a jet, as long as the streamwise vortex generation is concerned and appropriate dimensions are used. The present paper focuses on the influence of rod vortex generators on a flow pattern downstream. The results presented here concern experimental and numerical investigations and provide guidelines for the design of a new flow control method dedicated mainly to external flows.