Space activities in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela

This paper summarizes the establishment and current development of space activities in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. Space activities in Venezuela are focused on the areas of telecommunications, Earth observation and research on the physical properties of the Earth, and have as a primary goal the satisfaction of social needs. Current development of space activities started in 1999 when the new National Constitution recognized the value of outer space as the common heritage of mankind, and the key role of science and technology in promoting human welfare. The Bolivarian Agency for Space Activities (ABAE) was created in 2007. Its legal framework recognizes three key elements that drive its policy: the participation of society, capacity building and human training, and international cooperation. Indeed ongoing international cooperation with partners such as China, India, Brazil and Uruguay has already expanded Venezuelan space capabilities, allowing the country to launch its first telecommunications satellite, Venesat-1 in 2008, to plan the infrastructure development for the design of small satellites, and to train 1195 local professionals in space science, technology and applications. Our analysis shows that Venezuela has the potential to become a space leadership country, promoting the social welfare, integration, and sustainable development of Latin American countries.     

International cooperation - how to proceed

As part of a project exploring ways that international cooperation can maximize the benefits of space activities in the new political climate of the 1990s, the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) has been organizing expert workshops on the subject. The latest of these, held in December 1994, focused on five areas: global space systems services; human and robotic exploration; space transportation; solar power to Earth; and international peacekeeping. It is only in the last few years that recommendations on the latter topic could realistically have been put forward and, as a prelude to our presentation of the Executive Summary of the report produced by AIAA, two of the 60-plus participants drawn from 15 countries, Robert Fuhrmann and Jürgen Wild, discuss the implications of this new found openness over international security and analyse the background to its genesis.     

The legal hazards of transatlantic cooperation in space

Transatlantic cooperation has played a key part in developing Europe's capabilities in space, but this has been despite serious drawbacks in the legal status of the agreements concerned. This article traces the history of transatlantic space relations and highlights the misunderstandings that have arisen. These stem from the precedence given in the USA to domestic laws and financial interests over all international agreements except formal treaties, which are generally not considered suitable for scientific and technical agreements. The article concludes with a discussion of how more stable and equitable relationships could be achieved.     

Japanese space policy during the 1980s: A balance between autonomy and international cooperation

In the mid-1980s, Japan decided not only to invest in a totally domestic rocket, “H-II,” to acquire its independent access to space, but also to participate in the U.S. Space Station program to promote international space cooperation. Not until then did Japan try to achieve simultaneously both autonomy and international cooperation. This paper reexamines how Japan achieved a balance between autonomy and international cooperation in its space activities during the 1980s, from the perspective of Japan–U.S. diplomatic history. Against the background of the Japan–U.S. relations of those days, the similarities and differences between the two big space programs made it possible for Japan to decide them at the same time of the mid-1980s.     

Iran's space programme: Riding high for peace and pride

Iran's efforts to develop space technology for civil and peaceful purposes began many years ago. Almost all its success in this connection is the result of indigenous potential in terms of human resources, available expertise and experience along with international cooperation and exchange of knowledge. There are considerable civilian entities involved in space-related development and production in Iran. This article describes the history and current status and capabilities of Iran's space programme and its aim to use space for peace and prosperity and to attain the position that it deserves in the global arena. Stepping into space using an indigenously developed system has provided Iran with a notable and unprecedented national pride. Only international cooperation, as already exists in the framework of COPUOS activities on the peaceful uses of outer space, can improve 21st century understanding of the space policy and visions of Iran for the world community. Iran's space programme is really no different from that of any other nation. It is committed to developing its assets in space both for peaceful purposes and for use as part of various multinational space projects. It should not be ignored that such achievements require a high degree of expertise, ability and comprehensive knowledge about the subject, while the attitudes and visions of leaders in each nation who also influence and contribute to the pace, progress and developmental objectives of any nation's space program should not be disregarded.     

Prospects and opportunities for space collaboration with Latin America: What can India contribute and gain?

India in Asia and Brazil in Latin America are regarded as the most promising global economies. This paper examines the openings and possibilities for space technology collaboration between India and Latin American states under the larger rubric of science and technology collaboration. While the distance and language barriers between the two regions have proved a hindrance in the past, the paper proceeds with an assumption that, in the 21st century, such barriers should not be a limitation on developing strategic, economic, and science and technology partnerships among nation-states. The paper argues that the Latin American states are keen to have their own satellites because of their significant utility in the socioeconomic sector and this offers an opportunity to India to use cooperation in space technologies as a powerful tool for engagement in Latin America.     

ESA strategic planning for space exploration

The European Space Agency (ESA) is pursuing an independent strategic planning process for consolidating a destination driven (LEO, Moon, Mars) space exploration strategy. ESA's space exploration strategy is driven by the goals to maximise knowledge gain and to contribute to economic growth. International cooperation is a key pillar of ESA's strategy as it is considered both, an enabler for achieving common goals and a benefit, opening new perspective for addressing future challenges. The achievement of ESA's space exploration strategy is enabled through international partnerships. The interagency coordination process conducted within the framework of the International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG) plays an important role in laying the foundations for future partnerships. It has achieved so far the development of a common vision for space exploration, a common plan for implementing the vision in the form of the Global Exploration Roadmap, as well as a common approach for articulating the value of global space exploration. ESA has been a strong promoter and supporter of the interagency coordination process conducted within ISECG and thanks to its unique expertise in international cooperation the Agency has contributed to its success.     

An international symbol for the sustained exploration of space

As humanity prepares to extend its reach beyond low-Earth-orbit for the first time since the 1970s, a new symbol of international cooperation is needed to further promote the message of peace and collaboration such exploration entails. The space race that occurred between the USSR and the USA is an ill-suited model for long-term sustained space exploration because it is too costly and too resource-intensive for a single nation to bear. While competition is healthy for technology development, the success of a sustained space exploration strategy lies beyond technological capabilities. It lies in international cooperation, space policy, and public support. Without these, no program can realistically achieve a sustained presence in space beyond low-Earth orbit. To this effect, this paper proposes a cost-effective first step in the form of a universal symbol which, when placed alongside national flags displayed on hardware and astronaut/cosmonaut/taikonaut flight-suits, would send a strong message to the world that space exploration is done for the benefit of humanity as a whole, not just for spacefaring nations. The “Blue Marble”, the first complete picture of Earth taken from space by humans in 1972, fits this universally appealing symbol. This symbol requires no political collaboration between countries, yet is an image that anyone, anywhere in the world, can relate to regardless of nationality, ethnic origin or religious beliefs. Placed on the shoulder pads of human ’nauts – ambassadors of planet Earth – or prominently displayed on spacebound hardware, this symbol would send a universal message to present and future generations that, in space, our planet is working together for the benefit of everyone.     

中国运载火箭技术发展

中国航天运输系统建设起步于20世纪60年代,经过近50年的发展,取得了举世瞩目的成就,建设了布局合理、覆盖全面的空间运输系统体系,能够将不同有效载荷发射到低、中、高不同轨道。国际合作方面,在搭载发射、商业卫星发射服务和在轨交付3个方面也取得了一定成绩。对中国航天运输系统发展成就进行了总结,对航天运输系统未来发展特别是人工智能技术应用进行了展望。     

空间碎片国际机制发展趋势分析

文章通过对空间碎片国际机制(多边谈判机制)的分析,指出其发展趋势,从而为中国参加相关谈判工作提供参考。空间碎片国际机制的发展已呈现出明显的政策化、法律化和制度化的趋势。无论是从外空利益争夺、外空战略实现,还是从中国航天事业可持续发展、中国航天立法体系完善的角度来讲,积极参加空间碎片技术合作与规则制定的国际谈判都具有重要意义。从国内建设上来看,中国应尽快制定“技术—政策(战略)—法律”三位一体的解决思路和具体方案;从国际层面看,可以借鉴美国一直坚持和贯彻的“技术—政策—国内规则—国际软法—国际法”外空策略,来开展空间碎片减缓和清除等方面的技术与规则制定的合作。     

逐步建立亚太空间合作组织框架下的潜在冲突解决机制（英文）

Competition among countries has evolved from just on Earth but into space as space technology and space power is a key attribute in the world today. Today space technology has spread, due to the enormous development, into every sector of life in the Earth for the benefit of mankind. Every country has the ambition to be a part of the space initiative. Asia Pacific Space Cooperation Organization(APSCO) is an organization that tries to promote space activities through cooperation in the Asia Pacific region. This paper attempts to explore the nature and categories of potential conflict that may arise under the APSCO framework program. Furthermore, it also endeavors to establish an effective and better dispute settlement mechanism under the overall APSCO framework. Finally, this paper introduces the institutional framework and working procedures of the arbitration body for future smooth cooperation and space exploration by APSCO.     

An Asian perspective on the new US space policy: The emphasis on international cooperation and its relevance to Asia

This viewpoint examines the likely reasons behind the renewed focus on international cooperation in the new US National Space Policy, noting that the rise of various Asian space powers is one factor. It demonstrates the increase in US-Asian space cooperation that is already underway, arguing that such cooperation can only be to the good in providing Asian countries with a greater degree of cutting-edge technology and know-how, as well as contributing to the overall safety and security of outer space. Nevertheless, there will doubtless be problems such as cost overruns and delays and effort will have to be applied if cooperation is to work.     

From Halley's Comet to solar terrestrial science : The evolution of the Inter-Agency consultative group

The Inter-Agency Consultative Group (IACG) is an organization which seeks to maximize scientific returns from focused areas of space science through international cooperation. In its 11-year history the IACG has experienced both monumental success (with the collaborative exploration of Comet Halley) and, more recently, some serious growing pains in its second phase of operation, which focuses on solar terrestrial science. In this post-Cold War period, with increased interaction between countries offering greater opportunities for cooperation, the lessons to be learned from the IACG's experience will be valuable ones.     

Fast-track development of space technology in China

China's space industry faces challenges from the rapid growth in domestic demand for satellite services, international competition from the other members of the space club and infiltration of its domestic markets by foreign space companies. To counter this the country is making space a priority in current plans to improve national economic and social development, paying particular attention to applications satellites. Policies aimed at accelerating development include increasing state support for space, improving management - especially of invested funds - creating a better infrastructure and aiming for serial production of satellite components. It is acknowledged that much can be learnt from other countries and China is keen to pursue cooperative endeavours, but it intends also to retain its independence.     

Basic space science and developing countries

Basic science — including space science — is vital for national development, but developing countries often meet obstacles to participation in the international scientific community. This can be mitigated by international cooperation, particularly in the field of education. The author calls for a concerted effort to increase such cooperation regionally, internationally and bilaterally; international organizations should also become involved. Various forms of cooperation are suggested and UN efforts in the promotion of basic space science are described.     

United Nations Human Space Technology Initiative (HSTI)

The Human Space Technology Initiative was launched in 2010 within the framework of the United Nations Programme on Space Applications implemented by the Office for Outer Space Affairs of the United Nations. It aims to involve more countries in activities related to human spaceflight and space exploration and to increase the benefits from the outcome of such activities through international cooperation, to make space exploration a truly international effort.     

Human development and the conquest of space

Space age ethics are to be distinguished as a separate set of ethical concepts for several reasons: outer space constitutes a unifying element for mankind; the unique space environment has an international statute; and the impact of space science and the utilization of space technology will always have both positive and negative international consequences and repercussions. Its main objective is an immaterial output-related activity and much of its waste is equally immaterial. Space technology carries another hazard with it - the danger of domination by extrovert cultures. Proper development of space technology requires international cooperation, scientific creativity and technological innovation combined with sociopolitical, economic and cultural aims and objectives and ethical values. Norms and objectives have to take into account religious concepts, humanistic viewpoints and sociocultural criteria. The ethics of the conquest of space have to consider the benefit of all mankind and that of each single individual, group and society as complementary and of equal importance.     

A new setting for international space cooperation?

The year 2004 could be seen as the turning point for the realignment of international space cooperation for the 21st century. At the very core of this readjustment, the US space exploration initiative strives to define a new scheme for such a broad array of aspects as international scientific cooperation, the role of the space industry and the organizational framework for international space applications. This paper argues that the success of this new outline of international space cooperation depends on several conditions. First, the US initiative needs to demonstrate its long-term continuity and reliability for international partners, which will depend to no small degree on the future of the ISS and its utilization for international research. Second, international cooperation between industrial partners will continue to need political frameworks and depend on a balanced handling of know-how partnerships. Third, cooperation in space applications will need a truly international structure to further its global acceptance and outreach.     

Impact of unification on German space activities

1991 is one of the most decisive years in the history of German space activities. Not only do major policy decisions have to be taken concerning the continuation of the European programmes Hermes and Columbus — which, due to the heavy involvement of Germany in international cooperation, strongly affect its space policy — but one year after the unification of Germany the country is about to set up its new space programme. This is in fact a ‘new’ programme because for the first time it includes all space activities of the unified Germany.     

The land remote sensing commercialization Act of 1984

This article examines the effect that private-sector remote sensing activities might have on the international community and on the future of international cooperation in space. It describes in detail The Land Remote Sensing Commercialization Act of 1984, recently passed by the US Congress and signed by President Reagan. The article concludes that it is possible to develop domestic regulations that balance the economic interests of the private sector with the legal and political concerns of the international community.