The roles of humans and robots in exploring the solar system

Historically, advocates of solar system exploration have disagreed over whether program goals could be entirely satisfied by robotic missions. Scientists tend to argue that robotic exploration is most cost-effective. However, the human space program has a great deal of support in the general public, thereby enabling the scientific element of exploration to be larger than it might be as a stand-alone activity. A comprehensive strategy of exploration needs a strong robotic component complementing and supporting human missions. Robots are needed for precursor missions, for crew support on planetary surfaces, and for probing dangerous environments. Robotic field assistants can provide mobility, access to scientific sites, data acquisition, visualization of the environment, precision operations, sample acquisition and analysis, and expertise to human explorers. As long as space exploration depends on public funds, space exploration must include an appropriate mix of human and robotic activity.     

中国航天发展历程与启示 ——2009年空间环境与材料科学论坛大会报告

文章指出我国在应用卫星与卫星应用、载人航天和深空探测三大航天领域取得了巨大成就,为中国的经济、社会发展做出了巨大贡献,也展示了中国的综合实力。经过几十年的发展,中国进入太空能力得到了很大的发展,但在太空利用能力和太空控制能力的建设上还有更大的发展空间。随着我国航天事业的发展,用户对航天器的高可靠、长寿命的要求迫切,作为航天器功能实现的技术基础,环境、材料等基础研究工作应该去适应这种发展需求,加快基础能力的建设与发展。     

A methodology to support strategic decisions in future human space exploration: From scenario definition to building blocks assessment

The human exploration of multiple deep space destinations (e.g. Cis-Lunar, NEAs), in view of the final challenge of sending astronauts to Mars, represents a current and consistent study domain especially in terms of its possible scenarios and mission architectures assessments, as proved by the numerous on-going activities about this topic and moreover by the global exploration roadmap. After exploring and analysing different possible solutions to identify the most flexible path, a detailed characterisation of several Design Reference Missions (DRMs) represents a necessity in order to evaluate the feasibility and affordability of deep space exploration missions, specifically in terms of enabling technological capabilities.The study presented in this paper was aimed at defining an evolutionary scenario for deep space exploration in the next 30 years with the final goal of sending astronauts on the surface of Mars by the end of 2030 decade. Different destinations were considered as targets to build the human exploration scenario, with particular attention to Earth–Moon Lagrangian points, NEA and Moon. For all the destinations selected as part of the exploration scenario, the assessment and characterisation of the relative Design Reference Missions were performed. Specifically they were defined in terms of strategies, architectures and mission elements. All the analyses were based on a pure technical approach with the objective of evaluating the feasibility of a long term strategy for capabilities achievement and technological development to enable future space exploration.This paper describes the process that was followed within the study, focusing on the adopted methodology, and reports the major obtained results, in terms of scenario and mission analysis.     

通向月球之路

通向月球的路是漫长的。从现在起,有针对性地对空间探测理论与技术进行研究是非必需的。本文对月球探测轨道作一介绍,利用借力飞行和WSB转移,减少轨道机动所需的△V,从而减少发射费用,这对支持长期的持续的空间探测是非常必要的。离子推进推力器是空间探测用推进器的理想选择,应继续进行研究,并进行飞行试验验证。     

YH-1火星探测器设计及研制进展

介绍了中国首颗YH-1火星探测器的任务功能、组成和主要技术指标。给出了探测器设计中的火星探测超低温适应、深空探测自主姿态确定与控制、超远距离通信、休眠唤醒和剩磁控制等关键技术,以及相应的解决途径。试验和验证结果表明：YH-1火星探测器的设计满足火星探测特殊环境的任务要求。其设计和试验技术可直接用于我国其他深空探测项目,为后续深空探测积累了经验。     

Advanced materials for space applications

Since NASA was created in 1958, over 6400 patents have been issued to the agency—nearly one in a thousand of all patents ever issued in the United States. A large number of these inventions have focused on new materials that have made space travel and exploration of the moon, Mars, and the outer planets possible. In the last few years, the materials developed by NASA Langley Research Center embody breakthroughs in performance and properties that will enable great achievements in space. The examples discussed below offer significant advantages for use in small satellites, i.e., those with payloads under a metric ton. These include patented products such as LaRC SI, LaRC RP 46, LaRC RP 50, PETI-5, TEEK, PETI-330, LaRC CP, TOR-LM and LaRC LCR (patent pending). These and other new advances in nanotechnology engineering, self-assembling nanostructures and multifunctional aerospace materials are presented and discussed below, and applications with significant technological and commercial advantages are proposed.     

Advanced materials for space applications

Since NASA was created in 1958, over 6400 patents have been issued to the agency—nearly one in a thousand of all patents ever issued in the United States. A large number of these inventions have focused on new materials that have made space travel and exploration of the moon, Mars, and the outer planets possible. In the last few years, the materials developed by NASA Langley Research Center embody breakthroughs in performance and properties that will enable great achievements in space. The examples discussed below offer significant advantages for use in small satellites, i.e., those with payloads under a metric ton. These include patented products such as LaRC SI, LaRC RP 46, LaRC RP 50, PETI-5, TEEK, PETI-330, LaRC CP, TOR-LM and LaRC LCR (patent pending). These and other new advances in nanotechnology engineering, self-assembling nanostructures and multifunctional aerospace materials are presented and discussed below, and applications with significant technological and commercial advantages are proposed.     

Towards a cooperation between the arts,space science research and the European Space Agency – Preliminary findings of the ESA Topical Team Arts and Sciences (ETTAS)

The arts offer alternative insights into reality, which are explored by science in general, and broadened by the activities conducted by the European Space Agency [4] and other space agencies. Similar to the way the members of ESA are ambassadors for spaceflight and science, artists and cultural professionals are ambassadors for human expression, experimentation, and exploration. In June 2011, the ESA Topical Team Arts and Sciences (ETTAS) held a three-day workshop at the European Astronaut Centre in Cologne, Germany. During this workshop, topics and ideas were discussed to develop initiatives between the arts, sciences and ESA. The aim was to foster and expand the human and cultural aspects of space exploration, and at the same time offer a means of communication that aims to reach audiences beyond the scope of traditional space-related channels. The consensus of the team was that establishing and sustaining a transdisciplinary professional community consisting of ESA representatives, scientists and artists would fuel knowledge transfer, and mutual inspiration. Potential ways to provide a sustainable cooperation within and between the various groups were discussed. We present the preliminary findings including a number of measures and mechanisms to initiate and conduct such an initiative. Plausible organisational measures, procedures and consequences, as well as a proposition on how to proceed are also discussed. Overall, the involvement and cooperation between the arts, space science research and ESA will enhance in the citizens of the ESA member states the sense of public ownership of ESA results, and participation in ESA?s research.     

The International Space Station: a pathway to the future

Nearly six years after the launch of the first International Space Station element, and four years after its initial occupation, the United States and our 6 international partners have made great strides in operating this impressive Earth orbiting research facility. This past year we have done so in the face of the adversity of operating without the benefit of the Space Shuttle. In his January 14, 2004, speech announcing a new vision for America's space program, President Bush affirmed the United States' commitment to completing construction of the International Space Station by 2010. The President also stated that we would focus our future research aboard the Station on the long-term effects of space travel on human biology. This research will help enable human crews to venture through the vast voids of space for months at a time. In addition, ISS affords a unique opportunity to serve as an engineering test bed for hardware and operations critical to the exploration tasks. NASA looks forward to working with our partners on International Space Station research that will help open up new pathways for future exploration and discovery beyond low Earth orbit. This paper provides an overview of the International Space Station Program focusing on a review of the events of the past year, as well as plans for next year and the future.     

Human exploration of near earth asteroids: Mission analysis for chemical and electric propulsion

This paper presents a mission analysis comparison of human missions to asteroids using two distinct architectures. The objective is to determine if either architecture can reduce launch mass with respect to the other, while not sacrificing other performance metrics such as mission duration. One architecture relies on chemical propulsion, the traditional workhorse of space exploration. The second combines chemical and electric propulsion into a hybrid architecture that attempts to utilize the strengths of each, namely the short flight times of chemical propulsion and the propellant efficiency of electric propulsion. The architectures are thoroughly detailed, and accessibility of the known asteroid population is determined for both. The most accessible asteroids are discussed in detail. Aspects such as mission abort scenarios and vehicle reusability are also discussed. Ultimately, it is determined that launch mass can be greatly reduced with the hybrid architecture, without a notable increase in mission duration. This demonstrates that significant performance improvements can be introduced to the next step of human space exploration with realistic electric propulsion system capabilities. This leads to immediate cost savings for human exploration and simultaneously opens a path of technology development that leads to technologies enabling access to even further destinations in the future.     

The shuttle development and its growth potential

During the next two decades, we will establish the foundation for the 21st century's accomplishments in space. The Space Shuttle vehicle will become the cornerstone for that foundation by providing economical opportunities for space exploration and utilization.Reusability of the Shuttle vehicle is the key to its economy. The major developmental challenges encountered in the Shuttle program are typified by the complexities involved in designing the reusable propulsion and thermal protection subsystems. We successfully met such challenges and are nearing the launch of the first Shuttle orbital flight.Our immediate goal is to enter the Space Shuttle operational phase because only then will we fully understand the unique capabilities of the Shuttle. Concurrent with our effort to begin Shuttle operations are our initial efforts to expand Shuttle capabilities, extending them significantly beyond those of the current baseline system.Shuttle payload capacity and mission-duration capabilities are to increase considerably during the next decade. Just as present Shuttle performance specifications and development timetables were guided by the space program plans and forecasts of the 1960s, so will the development of long-range space programs be determined by our near-future achievements. We anticipate that the Space Shuttle will play a critical role in those achievements.     

基于空间机械臂的柔顺抓捕技术研究综述

空间机械臂是广泛应用于空间探索与实验的重要机电设备,柔顺抓捕技术为其执行主要任务的基础。空间机械臂柔顺抓捕技术主要分为结构设计与控制方法两个方面。首先介绍了目前已成功应用的空间机械臂末端执行器系统,分析了其结构与抓捕原理特点,说明了相应优势与不足,并给出结构优化的合理建议。然后介绍柔顺抓捕的控制方法在空间任务以及部分非空间任务中的成功应用,比较了其特性与优劣,归纳出优化的空间机械臂柔顺抓捕控制策略。本研究期望为空间机械臂柔顺抓捕技术的研究提供思路。     

Global space exploration 2025: Europe's perspectives for partnerships

Space exploration is an emblematic domain of space activities where traditionally only established space powers have been active. However, new actors are demonstrating great interest in it, principally for international prestige reasons, with an increasing number making ambitious plans. Complementing national endeavours, international cooperation has become a central element of most countries' exploration strategy, since the costs of doing it alone are so great. Europe's development into a fully fledged actor in space exploration requires a shared assessment of the future challenges, threats and opportunities with which it will be confronted in order to derive the best options for cooperation to lead and anticipate rather than follow and endure change.     

High energy-density propulsion—reducing the risk to humans in planetary exploration

The potential benefits to humankind of space exploration are tremendous. Space is not only the final frontier but is also the next marketplace. The orbital space above Earth offers tremendous opportunities for both strategic assets and commercial development. The critical obstacle retarding the use of the space around the Earth is the lack of low cost access to orbit. Further out, the next giant leap for mankind will be the human exploration of Mars. Almost certainly within the next 30 years, a human crew will brave the isolation, the radiation, and the lack of gravity to walk on and explore the Red planet. Both of these missions will change the outlook and perspective of every human being on the planet. However, these missions are expensive and extremely difficult. Chemical propulsion has demonstrated an inability to achieve orbit cheaply and is a very high-risk option to accomplish the Mars mission. An alternative solution is to develop a high performance propulsion system. Nuclear propulsion has the potential to be such a system. The question will be whether humanity is willing to take on the challenge.     

火星载人探测中辐射防护综述

火星探测是人类太空探索的重要组成部分,火星载人探测中航天员的辐射安全问题是人们最为关心的问题。文章扼要介绍了美国/俄罗斯火星载人探测技术的发展过程,重点阐述了探测中的辐射环境、辐射效应以及国外探测结果;在此基础上,对火星探测中的辐射剂量进行了预示,提出了辐射防护建议。     

A Delphi-Based Framework for systems architecting of in-orbit exploration infrastructure for human exploration beyond Low Earth Orbit

The current debate in the U.S. Human Spaceflight Program focuses on the development of the next generation of man-rated heavy lift launch vehicles. While launch vehicle systems are of critical importance for future exploration, a comprehensive analysis of the entire exploration infrastructure is required to avoid costly pitfalls at early stages of the design process. This paper addresses this need by presenting a Delphi-Based Systems Architecting Framework for integrated architectural analysis of future in-orbit infrastructure for human space exploration beyond Low Earth Orbit. The paper is structured in two parts.     

Subgravity states: key to understanding the role of terrestrial gravity in human behaviour

The early orbital flights, although undertaken with considerable confidence, involved some uncertainty because of the impossibility of simulating under terrestrial conditions all of the conditions encountered in space. However, space-flight achievements by both the American astronauts and Soviet cosmonauts have firmly established that man, if appropriately selected, trained, and protected by suitable life-support systems, can perform efficiently for long periods of time in the hostile environment of space. We know that the side effects of vestibular origin pose important problems in space exploration, and the neurophysiological effects of any extensive, rapid adaptation processes in subgravity states have enabled a better understanding of man's compensatory capabilities. With the successful establishment of orbiting research laboratories, an unparalleled opportunity exists that will undoubtedly enable better understanding of the role played by gravity in normal terrestrial activity, not only as it affects our vestibular physiology, but also as it may or may not concern other systems and at different organizational levels in the body.     

The Soviet-Russian space suits a historical overview of the 1960's

The development of protective suits for space use started with the Vostok-suit SK-1, first used by Yu. Gagarin on April 12, 1961, and then used on all subsequent Vostok-flights. The technical background for the design of these suits was the work on full pressure protective suits for military pilots and stratospheric flights in the 1930's through 50's. The Soviet-Russian space programme contains a large number of 'firsts', and one of the most well known is the first EVA by Leonov in 1965. This event is also the starting point for a long series of space suit development for Extravehicular Activities over the last 35 years. The next step to come was the transfer in void space of crew members between the two spacecraft Soyuz 4 and 5 in 1969. As has later become known this was an essential element in the planned Soviet lunar exploration programme, which in itself required a new space suit. After the termination of the lunar programme in 1972, the space suit development concentrated on suits applicable to zero-gravity work around the manned space stations Salyut 6, Salyut 7 and MIR. These suits have become known as the ORLAN-family of suits, and an advanced version of this suit (ORLAN-M) will be used on the International Space Station together with the American EMU. This paper covers the space suit development in the Soviet Union in the 1960's and the experience used from the pre-space era.     

Assessment of nanosystems for space applications

This paper first gives an overview of the applications of micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) in space. Microsystems are advertised for their extremely low size and mass, along with their low power consumption and in some case their improved performances. Examples of actual flown MEMS and future missions relying on MEMS are given. Microsystems are now enjoying a dynamic and expanding interest in the space community. This paper intends to give an idea about the next step in miniaturization, since the microelectronic industry is already looking at nano-electro-mechanical systems (NEMS) driven by the more-than-Moore philosophy. We show that the impact of nanosystems should not be reduced at a homothecy in size, weight and power consumption. New forces appear at this scale (Casimir force…) which have to be considered in the system design. The example of a nano-mechanical memory is developed. We also show that performances of nanosystems are not systematically better than their microscopic counterparts through the study of the impact of dimension reduction on an accelerometer resolution and sensitivity. We conclude with the idea that nanosystems will find their greatest applications in distributed intelligent networks that will allow new mission concepts for space exploration.     

Stepping stones toward global space exploration

Several nations are currently engaging in or planning for robotic and human space exploration programs that target the Moon, Mars and near-Earth asteroids. These ambitious plans to build new space infrastructures, transport systems and space probes will require international cooperation if they are to be sustainable and affordable. Partnerships must involve not only established space powers, but also emerging space nations and developing countries; the participation of these new space actors will provide a bottom-up support structure that will aid program continuity, generate more active members in the space community, and increase public awareness of space activities in both developed and developing countries. The integration of many stakeholders into a global space exploration program represents a crucial element securing political and programmatic stability. How can the evolving space community learn to cooperate on a truly international level while engaging emerging space nations and developing countries in a meaningful way? We propose a stepping stone approach toward a global space exploration program, featuring three major elements: (1) an international Earth-based field research program preparing for planetary exploration, (2) enhanced exploitation of the International Space Station (ISS) enabling exploration and (3) a worldwide CubeSat program supporting exploration. An international Earth-based field research program can serve as a truly global exploration testbed that allows both established and new space actors to gain valuable experience by working together to prepare for future planetary exploration missions. Securing greater exploitation of the ISS is a logical step during its prolonged lifetime; ISS experiments, partnerships and legal frameworks are valuable foundations for exploration beyond low Earth orbit. Cooperation involving small, low-cost missions could be a major stride toward exciting and meaningful participation from emerging space nations and developing countries. For each of these three proposed stepping stones, recommendations for coordination mechanisms are presented.