Propagation of normal and faster CMEs in the interplanetary medium

We have analyzed 101 Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) events and their associated interplanetary CMEs (ICMEs) and interplanetary (IP) shocks observed during the period 1997–2005 from the list given by Mujiber Rahman et al. (2012). The aim of the present work is to correlate the interplanetary parameters such as, the speeds of IP shocks and ICMEs, CME transit time and their relation with CME parameters near the Sun. Mainly, a group of 10 faster CME events (V_INT > 2200 km/s) are compared with a list of 91 normal events of Manoharan et al. (2004). From the distribution diagrams of CME, ICME and IP shock speeds, we note that a large number of events tends to narrow towards the ambient (i.e., background) solar wind speed (∼500 km/s) in agreement with the literature. Also, we found that the IP shock speed and the average ICME speed measured at 1 AU are well correlated. In addition, the IP shock speed is found to be slightly higher than the ICME speed. While the normal events show CME travel time in the range of ∼40–80 h with a mean value of 65 h, the faster events have lower transit time with a mean value of 40 h. The effect of solar wind drag is studied using the correlation of CME acceleration with interplanetary (IP) acceleration and with other parameters of ICMEs. While the mean acceleration values of normal and faster CMEs in the LASCO FOV are 1 m/s², 18 m/s², they are −1.5 m/s² and −14 m/s² in the interplanetary medium, respectively. The relation between CME speed and IP acceleration for normal and faster events are found to agree with that of  and  except slight deviations for the faster events. It is also seen that the faster events with less travel time face higher negative acceleration (>−10 m/s²) in the interplanetary medium up to 1 AU.     

Solar proton events recorded in the stratosphere during cosmic ray balloon observations in 1957–2008

Long-term balloon observations have been performed by the Lebedev Physical Institute since 1957 up to the present time. The observations are taken several times a week at the polar and mid latitudes and allow us to study dynamics of galactic and solar cosmic ray as well as secondary particle fluxes in the atmosphere and in the near-Earth space. Solar energetic particles (120) – mostly protons – (SEP) events with >100 MeV proton intensity above 1 cm⁻² s⁻¹ s⁻¹ were recorded during 1958–2006. Before the advent of the SEP monitoring on spacecraft these results constituted the only homogeneous series of >100 MeV SEP events. The SEP intensities and energy spectra inferred from the Lebedev Physical Institute observations are consistent with the results taken in the adjacent energy intervals by the spacecraft and neutron monitors. Joint consideration of the SEP events series recorded by balloons and by neutron monitors during solar cycles 20–23 makes it possible to restore the probable number of events in solar cycle 19, which was not properly covered by observations. Some correlation was found between duration of SEP event production in a solar cycle and sunspot cycle characteristics.     

Forward and reverse CIR shocks at 4–5 AU: Ulysses

In this article, we study fast shocks at CIR boundaries during an extended interval of 15 consecutive major high speed solar wind streams in 1992–1993. Ulysses was 4–5 AU from the sun. The Abraham-Schrauner shock normal method and the Rankine-Hugoniot relations were used to determine fast shock directions and speeds. Out of 33 potential CIR shocks, 14 were determined to be fast forward shocks (FSs) and 14 were fast reverse shocks (RSs). Of the remaining 5 events, 2 were forward waves and 3 were reverse waves. CIR edges at latitudes below ∼30^o were, for the most part, bounded by fast magnetosonic shocks. The forward shocks were generally quasi-perpendicular (average θ_nBo = 67^o). The reverse shocks were more oblique (average θ_nBo = 52^o), but they extended to all angles. Both FSs and RSs had magnetosonic Mach numbers ranging from 1 to 5 or 6. The average Mach numbers were 2.4 and 2.6 for FSs and RSs, respectively. The shock Mach numbers were noted to generally decrease with increasing latitude. The non-shock events or waves were noted to occur preferentially at high (∼−30° to −35°) heliolatitudes where stream-stream interactions were presumably weaker. These results are consistent with expectations, indicating the general accuracy of the Abraham-Schrauner technique.     

Properties of traveling atmospheric disturbances (TADs) inferred from CHAMP accelerometer observations

Densities derived from accelerometer measurements on the CHAMP satellite near 400 km are used to statistically establish characteristics of large-scale (>1000 km) traveling atmospheric disturbances (TADs). Only TADs that at least propagate from the auroral zone to the equator are analyzed here, and a total of 21 identifiable events are found over the years 2001–2007. The average speed of all TADs, regardless of local time, is 646 ± 122 ms⁻¹. The average speeds on the dayside and nightside are 595 ± 127 ms⁻¹ and 685 ± 106 ms⁻¹, respectively, i.e., the speed appears to be 10% higher on average on the nightside. On six occasions TADs were only detected on the night side; however, TADs on the dayside often appear more distinctly in the data. Moreover, contrary to some theoretical expectations, dayside TADs do not dissipate more readily than night side TADs, although much less are detected between 8–20 solar local time. No clear dependence of TAD amplitude or phase speed with respect to Kp, or rate of increase of Kp, is found.     

Relationships between energetic storm particle events and interplanetary shocks driven by full and partial halo coronal mass ejections

We have analysed energetic storm particle (ESP) events in 116 interplanetary (IP) shocks driven by front-side full and partial halo coronal mass ejections (CMEs) with speeds $>$400 km s^?1during the years 1996–2015. We investigated the occurrence and relationships of ESP events with several parameters describing the IP shocks, and the associated CMEs, type II radio bursts, and solar energetic particle (SEP) events. Most of the shocks (57 %) were associated with an ESP event at proton energies $>$1 MeV.The shock transit speeds from the Sun to 1 AU of the shocks associated with an ESP event were significantly greater than those of the shocks without an ESP event, and best distinguished these two groups of shocks from each other. The occurrence and maximum intensity of the ESP events also had the strongest dependence on the shock transit speed compared to the other parameters investigated. The correlation coefficient between ESP peak intensities and shock transit speeds was highest (0.73 $\pm$ 0.04) at 6.2 MeV. Weaker dependences were found on the shock speed at 1 AU, Alfvénic and magnetosonic Mach numbers, shock compression ratio, and CME speed. On average all these parameters were significantly different for shocks capable to accelerate ESPs compared to shocks not associated with ESPs, while the differences in the shock normal angle and in the width and longitude of the CMEs were insignificant.The CME-driven shocks producing energetic decametric–hectometric (DH) type II radio bursts and high-intensity SEP events proved to produce also more frequently ESP events with larger particle flux enhancements than other shocks. Together with the shock transit speed, the characteristics of solar DH type II radio bursts and SEP events play an important role in the occurrence and maximum intensity of ESP events at 1 AU.     

Solar cycle effect on temporal and spatial variation of topside ion density measured by SROSS C2 and ROCSAT 1 over the Indian longitude sector

We investigated the diurnal, seasonal and latitudinal variations of ion density Ni over the Indian low and equatorial topside ionosphere within 17.5°S to 17.5°N magnetic latitudes by combining the data from SROSS C2 and ROCSAT 1 for the 9 year period from 1995 to 2003 during solar cycle 23. The diurnal maximum density is found in the local noon or in the afternoon hours and the minimum occurs in the pre sunrise hours. The density is higher during the equinoxes as compared to that in the June and December solstice. The local time spread of the daytime maximum ion density increases with increase in solar activity. A north south asymmetry with higher ion density over northern hemisphere in the June solstice and over southern hemisphere in December solstice has been observed in moderate and high solar activity years. The crest to crest distance increases with increase in solar flux. Ion density bears a nonlinear relationship with F_10.7 cm solar flux and EUV flux in general. The density increases linearly with solar flux up to ∼150 sfu (1 sfu = 10⁻²²Wm⁻²Hz⁻¹) and EUV flux up to ∼50 units (10⁹ photons cm⁻² s⁻¹). But beyond this the density saturates. Inverse saturation and linear relationship have been observed in some season or latitude also. Inter-comparison of the three solar activity indices F_10.7 cm flux, EUV flux and F_10.7P (= (F_10.7 + F_10.7A)/2, where F_10.7A is the 81 day running average value of F_10.7) shows that the ion density correlates better with F_10.7P and F_10.7 cm fluxes. The annual average daytime total ion density from 1995 to 2003 follows a hysteresis loop as the solar cycle reverses. The ion density at 500 km over the Indian longitude sector as obtained by the international reference ionosphere is in general lower than the measured densities during moderate and high solar activity years. In low solar activity years the model densities are equal or higher than measured densities. The IRI EIA peaks are symmetric (±10°) in equinox while densities are higher at 10°N in June solstice and at 10°S in the December solstice. The model density follows F_10.7 linearly up to about F_10.7 > ∼150 sfu and then saturates.     

Coronal radio-sounding detection of a CME during the 1997 Galileo solar conjunction

Frequency fluctuations of the Galileo S-band radio signal were recorded nearly continuously during the spacecraft’s solar conjunction from December 1996 to February 1997. A strong propagating disturbance, most probably associated with a coronal mass ejection (CME), was detected on 7 February when the radio ray path proximate point was on the west solar limb at about 54 solar radii from the Sun. The CME passage through the line of sight is characterized by a significant increase in the fluctuation intensity of the recorded frequency and by an increase in the plasma speed from about 234 km s⁻¹ up to about 755 km s⁻¹. These velocity estimates are obtained from a correlation analysis of frequency fluctuations recorded simultaneously at two widely-separated ground stations. The density turbulence power spectrum is found to steepen behind the CME front. The Galileo radio-sounding data are compared with SOHO/LASCO observations of the CME in the corona and with WIND spacecraft data near the Earth’s orbit.     

Solar cycle and latitude dependence of high-beta suprathermal plasma conditions in interplanetary space between 1.3 and 5.4 AU

The analysis of energetic particles and magnetic field measurements from the Ulysses spacecraft has shown that in a series of events, the energy density contained in the suprathermal tail particle distribution is comparable to or larger than that of the magnetic field, creating conditions of high-beta plasma. In this work we analyze periods of high-beta suprathermal plasma occurrences (β_ep > 1) in interplanetary space, using the ratio (β_ep) of the energetic particle (20 keV to ∼5 MeV) and magnetic field energy densities from measurements covering the entire Ulysses mission lifetime (1990–2009) in order to reveal new or to reconfirm some recently defined interesting characteristics. The main key-results of the work are summarized as follows: (i) we verify that high-beta events are detected within well identified regions corresponding mainly to the vicinity of shock surfaces and magnetic structures, and associated with energetic particle intensity enhancements due to (a) reacceleration at shock-fronts and (b) unusually large magnetic field depressions. (ii) We define three considerable features for the high-beta events, concentrated on the next points: (a) there is an appreciable solar-activity influence on the high-beta events, during the maximum and middle solar-cycle phase, (b) the annual peak magnitude and the number of occurrences of high events are well correlated with the sunspot number, (c) the high-beta suprathermal plasma events present a spatial distribution in heliographic latitudes (HL) up to ∼±80°, and a specific important concentration on the low (−25° ? HL < −6°, 6° < HL ? 25°) and median (−45° ? HL < −25°, 25° < HL ? 45°) latitudes. We also reconfirm by a statistical analysis the results of Marhavilas and Sarris (2011), that the high-beta suprathermal plasma (β_ep > 1) events are characterized by a very large parameter β_ep (up to 1732.5), a great total duration (406 days) and a large percentage of the Ulysses-mission lifetime (which is equal to 6.34% of the total duration with usable measurements, and 11.3% of the duration in presence of suprathermal particles events).     

Variation in the ionospheric propagating factor M(3000)F2 at Ouagadougou,Burkina Faso

We use hourly monthly median values of propagation factor M(3000)F2 data observed at Ouagadougou Ionospheric Observatory (geographic12.4°N, 1.5°W; 5.9^o dip), Burkina Faso (West Africa) during the years Januar1987–December1988 (average F10.7 < 130 × 10⁻²² W/m²/Hz, representative of low solar flux conditions) and for January 1989–December1990 (average F10.7 ? 130 × 10⁻²² W/m²/Hz, representative of high solar epoch) for magnetically quiet conditions to describe local time, seasonal and solar cycle variations of equatorial ionospheric propagation factor M(3000)F2 in the African region. We show that that seasonal trend between solar maximum and solar minimum curves display simple patterns for all seasons and exhibits reasonable disparity with root mean square error (RMSE) of about 0.31, 0.29 and 0.26 for December solstice, June solstice and equinox, respectively. Variability Σ defined by the percentage ratio of the absolute standard deviation to the mean indicates significant dissimilarity for the two solar flux levels. Solar maximum day (10–14 LT) and night (22–02 LT) values show considerable variations than the solar minimum day and night values. We compare our observations with those of the IRI 2007 to validate the prediction capacity of the empirical model. We find that the IRI model tends to underestimate and overestimate the observed values of M(3000)F2, in particular, during June solstice season. There are large discrepancies, mainly during high solar flux equinox and December solstice between dawn and local midnight. On the other hand, IRI provides a slightly better predictions for M(3000)F2 between 0900 and 1500 LT during equinox low and high solar activity and equinox high sunspot number. Our data are of great importance in the area of short-wave telecommunication and ionospheric modeling.     

Energy conversion of the flare due to direct electric fields from the sheared reconnection

In this paper we present a new mechanism of the main energy conversion of the solar flare. Since a flare inducing prominence (flux tube) rises V_z ? 300 km s⁻¹, the plasmas below it cannot continuously eject with Alfvén speeds of V_A = 3000 km s⁻¹ but probably with V_z ≈ ±100 km s⁻¹. Plasma up and downflows with V_A will within a short duration be blocked between the chromosphere where reconnected flux tubes are piling up, and the slowly rising flux rope. Hence the Petschek slow shock mechanism is difficult to be realized as a major energy converting mechanism.     

Coronal mass ejections acceleration problem

A statistical study of acceleration and its error of coronal mass ejections (CMEs) observed by the Large Angle Spectrometric Coronagraph (LASCO) is performed. A total of 5594 CMEs events have been analyzed by using a least-square method and using the error in the height measures. We verify that slower CMEs (velocities in the interval from 200 to 500 km s⁻¹) tend to have a positive acceleration (about 1 m s⁻²) at heights above 5 solar radii, while less than 10% CMEs show an average negative acceleration (about −2.2 m s⁻²) as they propagate from 5 to 30 solar radii. For most individual CMEs one can not say if they are accelerated or decelerated, only for 8% of all observed CMEs events one can extract the sign of the acceleration in the 5–30 solar radii.     

Tolerance of chufa (Cyperus esculentus L.) plants,representing the higher plant compartment in bioregenerative life support systems,to super-optimal air temperatures

Plants intended to be included in the photosynthesizing compartment of the bioregenerative life support system (BLSS) need to be studied in terms of both their production parameters under optimal conditions and their tolerance to stress factors that might be caused by emergency situations. The purpose of this study was to investigate tolerance of chufa (Cyperus esculentus L.) plants to the super-optimal air temperature of 45 ± 1 °C as dependent upon PAR (photosynthetically active radiation) intensity and the duration of the exposure to the stress factor. Chufa plants were grown hydroponically, on expanded clay, under artificial light. The nutrient solution was Knop’s mineral medium. Until the plants were 30 days old, they had been grown at 690 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ PAR and air temperature 25 °C. Thirty-day-old plants were exposed to the temperature 45 °C for 6 h, 20 h, and 44 h at PAR intensities 690 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ and 1150 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹. The exposure to the damaging air temperature for 44 h at 690 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ PAR caused irreversible damage to PSA, resulting in leaf mortality. In chufa plants exposed to heat shock treatment at 690 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ PAR for 6 h and 20 h, respiration exceeded photosynthesis, and CO₂ release in the light was recorded. Functional activity of photosynthetic apparatus, estimated from parameters of pulse-modulated chlorophyll fluorescence in Photosystem 2 (PS 2), decreased 40% to 50%. After the exposure to the stress factor was finished, functional activity of PSA recovered its initial values, and apparent photosynthesis (P_apparent) rate after a 20-h exposure to the stress factor was 2.6 times lower than before the elevation of the temperature. During the first hours of plant exposure to the temperature 45 °C at 1150 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ PAR, respiration rate was higher than photosynthesis rate, but after 3–4 h of the exposure, photosynthetic processes exceeded oxidative ones and CO₂ absorption in the light was recorded. At the end of the 6-h exposure, P_apparent rate was close to that recorded prior to the exposure, and no significant changes were observed in the functional activity of PSA. At the end of the 20-h exposure, P_apparent rate was close to its initial value, but certain parameters of the functional activity of PSA decreased 25% vs. their initial values. During the repair period, the parameters of external gas exchange recovered their initial values, and parameters of pulse-modulated chlorophyll fluorescence were 20–30% higher than their initial values. Thus, exposure of chufa plants to the damaging temperature of the air for 20 h did not cause any irreversible damage to the photosynthetic apparatus of plants at either 690 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ or 1150 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ PAR, and higher PAR intensity during the heat shock treatment enhanced heat tolerance of the plants.     

Simulation of ASTROD I test mass charging due to solar energetic particles and interplanetary electrons

As ASTROD I travels through space, its test mass will accrue charge due to exposure of the spacecraft to high-energy particles. This test mass charge will result in Coulomb forces between the test mass and the surrounding electrodes. In earlier work, we have used the GEANT 4 toolkit to simulate charging of the ASTROD test mass due to cosmic-ray protons of energies between 0.1 and 1000 GeV at solar maximum and at solar minimum. Here we use GEANT 4 to simulate the charging process due to solar energetic particle events and interplanetary electrons. We then estimate the test mass acceleration noise due to these fluxes. The predicted charging rates range from 2247 e⁺/s to 47,055 e⁺/s, at peak intensity, for the four largest SEP events in September and October 1989. Although the noise due to charging exceeds the ASTROD I budget for the two larger events, it can be suppressed through continuous discharging. The acceleration noise during the two small events is well below the design target. The charging rate of the ASTROD I test mass due to interplanetary electrons in this simulation is about −11% of the cosmic-ray protons at solar minimum, and over −37% at solar maximum. In addition to the Monte Carlo uncertainty, an error of ±30% in the net charging rates should be added to account for uncertainties in the spectra, physics models and geometry implementations.     

Solar energetic particle events during the rise phases of solar cycles 23 and 24

We present a comparative study of the properties of coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and flares associated with the solar energetic particle (SEP) events in the rising phases of solar cycles (SC) 23 (1996–1998) (22 events) and 24 (2009–2011) (20 events), which are associated with type II radio bursts. Based on the SEP intensity, we divided the events into three categories, i.e. weak (intensity < 1 pfu), minor (1 pfu < intensity < 10 pfu) and major (intensity ? 10 pfu) events. We used the GOES data for the minor and major SEP events and SOHO/ERNE data for the weak SEP event. We examine the correlation of SEP intensity with flare size and CME properties. We find that most of the major SEP events are associated with halo or partial halo CMEs originating close to the sun center and western-hemisphere. The fraction of halo CMEs in SC 24 is larger than the SC 23. For the minor SEP events one event in SC23 and one event in SC24 have widths < 120° and all other events are associated with halo or partial halo CMEs as in the case of major SEP events. In case of weak SEP events, majority (more than 60%) of events are associated with CME width < 120°. For both the SC the average CMEs speeds are similar. For major SEP events, average CME speeds are higher in comparison to minor and weak events. The SEP event intensity and GOES X-ray flare size are poorly correlated. During the rise phase of solar cycle 23 and 24, we find north–south asymmetry in the SEP event source locations: in cycle 23 most sources are located in the south, whereas during cycle 24 most sources are located in the north. This result is consistent with the asymmetry found with sunspot area and intense flares.     

Modulation of galactic cosmic rays in a north–south asymmetrical heliosphere

Observations made with the two Voyager spacecraft confirmed that the solar wind decelerates to form the heliospheric termination shock. Voyager 1 crossed this termination shock at ∼94 AU in 2004, while Voyager 2 crossed it in 2007 at a different heliolatitude, about 10 AU closer to the Sun. These different positions of the termination shock confirm the dynamic and cyclic nature of the shock’s position. Observations from the two Voyager spacecraft inside the heliosheath indicate significant differences between them, suggesting that apart from the dynamic nature caused by changing solar activity there also may exist a global asymmetry in the north–south (polar) dimensions of the heliosphere, in addition to the expected nose–tail asymmetry. This relates to the direction in which the heliosphere is moving in interstellar space and its orientation with respect to the interstellar magnetic field. In this paper we focus on illustrating the effects of this north–south asymmetry on modulation of galactic cosmic ray Carbon, between polar angles of 55° and 125°, using a numerical model which includes all four major modulation processes, the termination shock and the heliosheath. This asymmetry is incorporated in the model by assuming a significant dependence on heliolatitude of the thickness of the heliosheath. When comparing the computed spectra between the two polar angles, we find that at energies E < ∼1.0 GeV the effects of the assumed asymmetry on the modulated spectra are insignificant up to 60 AU from the Sun but become increasingly more significant with larger radial distances to reach a maximum inside the heliosheath. In contrast, with E > ∼1.0 GeV, these effects remain insignificant throughout the heliosphere even very close to the heliopause. Furthermore, we find that a higher local interstellar spectrum for Carbon enhances the effects of asymmetric modulation between the two polar angles at lower energies (E < ∼300 MeV). In conclusion, it is found that north–south asymmetrical effects on the modulation of cosmic ray Carbon depend strongly on the extent of the geometrical asymmetry of the heliosheath together with the assumed value of the local interstellar spectrum.     

Response of the mid-latitude D-region ionosphere to the total solar eclipse of 22 July 2009 studied using VLF signals in South Korean peninsula

In this paper, we analyze VLF signals received at Busan to study the the D-region changes linked with the solar eclipse event of 22 July 2009 for very short (∼390 km) transmitter–receiver great circle path (TRGCP) during local noon time 00:36–03:13 UT (09:36–12:13 KST). The eclipse crossed south of Busan with a maximum obscuration of ∼84%. Observations clearly show a reduction of ∼6.2 dB in the VLF signal strength at the time of maximum solar obscuration (84% at 01:53 UT) as compared to those observed on the control days. Estimated values of change in Wait ionospheric parameters: reflection height (h′) in km and inverse scale height parameter (β) in km⁻¹ from Long Wave Propagation Capability (LWPC) model during the maximum eclipse phase as compared to unperturbed ionosphere are 7 km and 0.055 km⁻¹, respectively. Moreover, the D-region electron density estimated from model computation shows 95% depletion in electron density at the height of ∼71 km. The reflection height is found to increase by ∼7 km in the D-region during the eclipse as compared to those on the control days, implying a depletion in the Lyman-α flux by a factor of ∼7. The present observations are discussed in the light of current understanding on the solar eclipse induced D-region dynamics.     

The investigation of powerful solar flares characteristics by analysis of excited states of C and various neutrons capture lines

Accelerated energetic particles in solar flares produced nuclear γ-lines in interactions with ambient solar atmosphere. Analysis of intensity of ratios between various γ-lines allows us to make estimations of abundance of elements, parameters of surrounding media and other solar characteristics. In this article we discuss the flux ratio between two lines from excited states of ¹²C (f_15.11/f_4.44) and our results of preliminary calculation of intensity ratio between two neutron capture lines at ³He and ¹H (f_20.58/f_2.223). In particular we consider the opportunity to obtain n(³He)/n(¹H) ratio during solar flares and using high-energy gamma-emission studying, based on the satellite data. Possible interpretation of spectral features observed during the January 20, 2005 solar flare is discussed. Preliminary analysis of energy spectrum in the band of 2–21 MeV gives n(³He)/n(¹H) ∼ 8 × 10⁻⁴ for January 20, 2005 solar flare.     

Changes in sea-level pressure over South Korea associated with high-speed solar wind events

We explore a possibility that the daily sea-level pressure (SLP) over South Korea responds to the high-speed solar wind event. This is of interest in two aspects: first, if there is a statistical association this can be another piece of evidence showing that various meteorological observables indeed respond to variations in the interplanetary environment. Second, this can be a very crucial observational constraint since most models proposed so far are expected to preferentially work in higher latitude regions than the low latitude region studied here. We have examined daily solar wind speed V, daily SLP difference ΔSLP, and daily log(BV²) using the superposed epoch analysis in which the key date is set such that the daily solar wind speed exceeds 800 km s⁻¹. We find that the daily ΔSLP averaged out of 12 events reaches its peak at day +1 and gradually decreases back to its normal level. The amount of positive deviation of ΔSLP is +2.5 hPa. The duration of deviation is a few days. We also find that ΔSLP is well correlated with both the speed of solar wind and log(BV²). The obtained linear correlation coefficients and chance probabilities with one-day lag for two cases are r ? 0.81 with P > 99.9%, and r ? 0.84 with P > 99.9%, respectively. We conclude by briefly discussing future direction to pursue.     

Mid-latitude thermospheric zonal winds during the equinoxes

The diurnal variation of the mid-latitude upper thermosphere zonal winds during equinoxes has been studied using data recently generated from CHAMP measurements from 2002 to 2004 using an iterative algorithm. The wind data was separated into two geomagnetic activity levels, representing high geomagnetic activity level (Ap > 8) and low geomagnetic activity level (Ap ? 8). The data were further separated into two solar flux levels; with F10.7 > 140 for high and F10.7 ? 140 for low. Geomagnetic activity is a correlator just as significant as solar activity. The response of mid-latitude thermospheric zonal winds to increases in geomagnetic disturbances and solar flux is evident. With increase in geomagnetic activity, midday to midnight winds are generally less eastward and generally more westward after the about midnight transitions. The results show that east west transitions generally occurred about midnight hours for all the situations analyzed. The west to east transition occurs from 1400–1500 MLT. Enhanced westward averaged zonal wind speeds going above 150 ms⁻¹ are observed in the north hemisphere mid-latitude about sunrise hours (∼0700–1100 MLT). Nighttime winds in the north hemisphere are in good agreement with previous single station ground observations over Millstone Hill. Improved ground observations and multi satellite observations from space will greatly improve temporal coverage of the Earth’s thermosphere.     

Magnetosphere response to the 2005 and 2006 extreme solar events as observed by the Cluster and Double Star spacecraft

The four identical Cluster spacecraft, launched in 2000, orbit the Earth in a tetrahedral configuration and on a highly eccentric polar orbit (4–19.6 R_E). This allows the crossing of critical layers that develop as a result of the interaction between the solar wind and the Earth’s magnetosphere. Since 2004 the Chinese Double Star TC-1 and TC-2 spacecraft, whose payload comprise also backup models of instruments developed by European scientists for Cluster, provided two additional points of measurement, on a larger scale: the Cluster and Double Star orbits are such that the spacecraft are almost in the same meridian, allowing conjugate studies. The Cluster and Double Star observations during the 2005 and 2006 extreme solar events are presented, showing uncommon plasma parameters values in the near-Earth solar wind and in the magnetosheath. These include solar wind velocities up to ∼900 km s⁻¹ during an ICME shock arrival, accompanied by a sudden increase in the density by a factor of ∼5 and followed by an enrichment in He⁺⁺ in the secondary front of the ICME. In the magnetosheath ion density values as high as 130 cm⁻³ were observed, and the plasma flow velocity there reached values even higher than the typical solar wind velocity. These resulted in unusual dayside magnetosphere compression, detection of penetrating high-energy particles in the magnetotail, and ring current development following several successive injections of energetic particles in the inner magnetosphere, which “washed out” the previously formed nose-like ion structures.