Earth observation data pricing policy

Pricing policy for Earth observation data continues to be a problem for both supplier organizations and user organizations: there are incompatible or conflicting pricing policies used by different organizations in the Earth observation sector. This paper analyses the issues in Earth observation data pricing in two ways. First, it analyses the policy foundations which underlie Earth observation data pricing, such as return on investment, the basis of pricing policy and access conditions. Second, it presents five policy options for the pricing of Earth observation data, namely free data, marginal cost price, market driven price, two tier pricing and rebalancing of government funding. The paper concludes with an analysis of the forces acting on Earth observation data pricing policy.     

User issues and Earth observation data policy

The second workshop of the EOPOLE project was held in Cosenza, Italy, 10–12 May 1999, organised by Microwave Consultant Engineering (MiCE). Its purpose was to address the user issues related to Earth observation data policy. This report presents the main conclusions of the workshop. The different approaches among lead departments within national governments emerged as one of the main areas of which users in Europe need to be aware.     

Earth Observation Data Policy and Europe

This paper summarizes the final report of the Earth Observation and Data Policy and Europe (EOPOLE) fixed-term project, set up to review national research on the subject and to make recommendations for its improvement within an EU-wide context. It identifies the major issues to have emerged from the areas of user perspectives, pricing policy, the impact of new technologies on data policy, archiving policy and legal regulation and suggests ways of dealing with them. These include orienting data policies towards specific uses rather than users themselves; presenting a common European voice over the trade and exchange of geo-information via new communication means; and establishing a European-scale think-tank able to provide independent assessments of the economic, legal and international relations questions affecting Earth observation.     

The earth observation market: industrial dynamics and their impact on data policy

This paper examines the relationship between public sector objectives in the Earth observation data market and the economic interests of Earth observation data procedures. The Earth observation data market is treated as a particular example of an information market and the economic incentives created by the cultural characteristics of the market, particularly in Europe, are considered to assess the implications for data pricing policies. The analysis focuses upon implications of the vertical and horizontal linkages in the Earth observation industrial participation chain which includes space segment suppliers, space agencies and operators, data intermediaries and end users. A rebalancing of administrative and market decisions is proposed that would result in a shift in the allocation of public resources from space agencies and data intermediaries to data users whose activities are deemed to be in the widest public interest.     

Earth Observation Data Policy and Europe (EOPOLE)

A project has recently begun to review, coordinate and help formulate European Earth observation data policy. The project held its first of several workshops at University College London, 11–13 January 1999. The purpose of the first workshop was to conduct a review of the state-of-the-art in Earth observation data policy in Europe. All the EOPOLE team members gave presentations, and an extended discussion was held with Roy Gibson, former Director General of the European Space Agency, as the invited expert. This report describes the raison d'etre of EOPOLE and presents the main conclusions of the first workshop.     

New technologies and data integration

The fourth workshop of the Earth Observation Data Policy and Europe (EOPOLE) project was held in Brussels, Belgium, 18–20 October 1999 at the offices of the European Commission DG Research, with Yves Reginster of Gere SA, Luxembourg, as guest speaker. The purpose of the workshop was to discuss the data policy issues raised by new technologies and by integrating Earth observation (EO) data with non-EO data. They included risks and reliability of output products, transfer of experience with new projects and intellectual property rights.     

Archives for Earth observation data

The fifth workshop of the EOPOLE project¹ was held in Seville, Spain, 17–19 January 2000, with the purpose of forming an opinion on European Earth observation data archiving policy. This report discusses the growing size and importance of EO data archives and presents the main conclusions of the workshop. The case is made for the establishment of a European centre for data archiving and users are urged to become more involved in archiving policy.     

Small spacecraft “UNISAT” launched by the “start-1” launcher

The preliminary estimations show that the contemporary level of electronic and information engineering makes it possible to create a small s/c of 150–200 kg mass capable to solve both the problems of Earth remote sensing and many other applied and scientific problems orbiting the planets at 500–1000 km. In accordance with the fundamental criterion for choosing parameters of small multipurpose spacecraft the small UNISAT s/c has been created on the basis of a unified space platform. The design provides for s/c energetic, thermal and space-saving parameters satisfying the conditions for accommodation of various-purpose payload and a possibility of using relatively inexpensive and light launchers like “Start-1” mobile launch complexes. Space platform mass is 100–120 kg; permissible payloads (PL) mass is 40–80 kg; maximal average power consumption of the payload is up to 60 W; three-axes orientation accuracy up to 0.001 deg./s; s/c lifetime is not less than 3–5 years.     

A failure of international space cooperation: the International Earth Observing System

This paper examines the failure of the Earth Observation International Coordination Working Group to implement an International Earth Observation System. Tracing the history of both the Group and the mission concept, it explains the political and organizational failures that took place. It shows that these failures were linked to different approaches to international cooperation in Earth observation data policy. The main points of contention existed between Working Group members, NASA and ESA. NASA favored formal and binding legal arrangements, while ESA preferred to avoid institutionalized legal commitments. Success in coordinating and harmonizing data policy on a multilateral basis for Earth observation missions is more likely to be achieved by pursuing agreement on general principles and terms of reference than by seeking specific legal agreements.     

The Earth Observation Summit: heralding a new era for international cooperation

The world's first political summit on Earth observation was attended by senior policy makers and expert organizations from a range of scientific disciplines. Its aim was to improve global cooperation in Earth observation and increase its use as a decision-making tool for sustainable development and resource conservation. This article presents a brief survey of the progress made in Earth observation since its birth, along with the specific events driving the convening of the summit. The summit produced a declaration outlining four key areas requiring support, and an ad hoc group was established to produce a 10-year plan and drive implementation of policy.     

Human Mission from Planet Earth: finding a rationale for exploration of the Moon and Mars

This paper advances scenarios for an evolutionary approach to the establishment of a Human Mission from Planet Earth involving exploration and utilization of the Moon and Mars. Of critical importance are the concepts of robotic–human and Moon–Mars synergies. The paper discusses the rationale variables that have an influence on types of space activities pursued and thus the policy that leads to particular scenarios. In this regard, the technological, scientific, and sociopolitical/socioeconomic impacts and consequences related to a Human Mission from Planet Earth are examined.     

Bistatic radar as a tool for earth investigation using small satellites

Bistatic radar is a facility for the Earth remote sensing, which uses large spatial diversity between its transmitter and receiver. Nomogram method is proposed to determine the radar's parameters. Analysis of the nomograms has shown that modern onboard radio facilities allow to obtain spatial resolution of about 100 m at the wavelength λ = 3 cm for LEO satellite (H = 350 km). Experiments of bistatic radiolocation of the Earth near the radioshadow zone were provided using telecommunication link “MIR” orbital station — GEO satellite at wavelength λ = 32 cm. For the first time in practice of bistatic radiolocation of the Earth from space reflected signal in radioshadow zone was observed.The analysis of experimental results verified the developed radiophysical model with the value of sea water conductivity σ = 7.0 mo/m and absorption coefficient due to atmospheric oxygen χ = 0.0096±0.0024 dB/km.     

Planetary Defense From Space: Part 1-Keplerian Theory

A system of two space bases housing missiles is proposed to achieve the Planetary Defense of the Earth against dangerous asteroids and comets. We show that the layout of the Earth–Moon system with the five relevant Lagrangian (or libration) points in space leads naturally to only one, unmistakable location of these two space bases within the sphere of influence of the Earth. These locations are at the two Lagrangian points L1 (in between the Earth and the Moon) and L3 (in the direction opposite to the Moon from the Earth).

We show that placing bases of missiles at L1 and L3 would cause those missiles to deflect the trajectory of asteroids by hitting them orthogonally to their impact trajectory toward the Earth, so as to maximize their deflection. We show that the confocal conics are the best class of trajectories fulfilling this orthogonal deflection requirement.

An additional remark is that the theory developed in this paper is just a beginning of a larger set of future research work. In fact, while in this paper we only develop the Keplerian analytical theory of the Optimal Planetary Defense achievable from the Earth–Moon Lagrangian points L1 and L3, much more sophisticated analytical refinements would be needed to:

1. Take into account many perturbation forces of all kinds acting on both the asteroids and missiles shot from L1 and L3;

2. add more (non-optimal) trajectories of missiles shot from either the Lagrangian points L4 and L5 of the Earth–Moon system or from the surface of the Moon itself;

3. encompass the full range of missiles currently available to the US (and possibly other countries) so as to really see “which asteroids could be diverted by which missiles”, even in the very simplified scheme outlined here.

Outlined for the first time in February 2002, our Confocal Planetary Defense concept is a Keplerian Theory that proved simple enough to catch the attention of scholars, representatives of the US Military and popular writers. These developments could possibly mark the beginning of an “all embracing” mathematical vision of Planetary Defense beyond all learned activities, dramatic movies and unknown military plans covered by secret.     

European perspectives on trends in public sector Earth observation data policies

The growing number of Earth observation satellites are producing ever increasing amounts of data. These data sets require adequate management to be widely exploited and to ensure preservation of what is a valuable information resource. Many Earth observation organisations have formulated or are developing policies related to how data are managed and distributed which encompass issues such as property rights, access and price of the data, exclusive data use and data archiving. European Earth observation is gaining more prominence in these developing policy issues. This paper is a review, from a largely European perspective, of current Earth observation data policies in operation by various public sector international, regional and national organisations in both the data providing and data user sectors. It will be demonstrated that certain trends exist between the various data policies but that differences in position are present in some key areas which may need to be reconciled in order for the Earth observation sector to reach maturity.     

Rosetta: The ESA comet rendezvous mission

Rosetta was selected in November 1993 for the ESA Cornerstone 3 mission, to be launched in 2003, dedicated to the exploration of the small bodies of the solar system (asteroids and comets). Following this selection, the Rosetta mission and its spacecraft have been completely reviewed: this paper presents the studies performed the proposed mission and the resulting spacecraft design.

Three mission opportunities have been identified in 2003–2004, allowing rendezvous with a comet. From a single Ariane 5 launch, the transfer to the comet orbit will be supported by planetary gravity assists (two from Earth, one from Venus or Mars); during the transfer sequence, two asteroid fly-bys will occur, allowing first mission science phases. The comet rendezvous will occur 8–9 years after launch; Rosetta will orbit around the comet and the main science mission phase will take place up to the comet perihelion (1–2 years duration).

The spacecraft design is driven (i) by the communication scenario with the Earth and its equipment, (ii) by the autonomy requirements for the long cruise phases which are not supported by the ground stations, (iii) by the solar cells solar array for the electrical power supply and (iv) by the navigation scenario and sensors for cruise, target approach and rendezvous phases. These requirements will be developed and the satellite design will be presented.     

Mature systems for small satellite missions

Over the past several years Satellites International has developed an integrated suite of satellite sub-systems and small satellite buses. The sub-systems include S-band communications, attitude sensing and control, power conversion and distribution, and on-board data handling. They are inherently modular and readily adaptable to different satellite configurations, a concept known as semi-standardisation. This concept has been adopted by two generic low-cost buses: MicroSIL for satellites in the mass range 40–80kg; and MiniSIL for satellites in the range 100–500kg. Their architecture is based on the semi-standard sub-systems, but easily modified to utilise sub-systems from other manufacturers. They can support all stabilisation methods including spinning, 3-axis control and gravity gradient and are adaptable to a wide variety of missions including Earth resources, scientific, communications and technology demonstration. The Company also manufactures a range of low cost ground support equipment and complete ground stations to complement the space-borne systems.     

Characterizing the near-earth object hazard and its mitigation

Within observational constraints and analytic orbit determinations, potential NEO hazards and mitigations are characterized in terms of orbit displacements to establish (arbitrary) “safe” closest approach distances and corresponding energies that must be externally applied to achieve appropriate orbit displacements from the Earth. Required orbital velocity changes depend on projected closest Earth approach distances and time to (near) impact. Energy to achieve orbital displacement depends on NEO mass, required orbital velocity change, and the energy–momentum coupling coefficient. Errors in these parameters introduce uncertainties into hazard index and mitigation procedures. Hazard avoidance levels and mitigation indices for nine near-Earth asteroids, including 1997 XF₁₁ and 1999 AN₁₀, with non-zero Earth-impact probabilities are computed as examples of the proposed methodology, generating insight into the dilemma of predicting near impacts. This zeroth order approximation should not be construed as solving an orbital mechanics problem, nor establishing a particular set of criteria for mitigation action, but rather as a “survival index”.     

How shall we live in space? Culture, law and ethics in spacefaring society

The US civilian space program is focused on planning for a new round of human missions beyond Earth orbit, to realize a ‘vision’ for exploration articulated by President George W. Bush. It is important to examine this ‘vision’ in the broader context of the global enterprise of 21st century space exploration. How will extending a human presence into the Solar System affect terrestrial society and culture? What legal, ethical and other value systems should govern human activities in space? This paper will describe the current environment for space policy making and possible frameworks for future space law, ethics and culture. It also proposes establishment of a World Space Conference to aid deliberations on the above.     

New results for the space radiation environment of MIR space station obtained by Liulin dosimeter-radiometer. Comparison with LET spectrometer NAUSICAA

Since 1988 high sensitivity semiconductor dosimeter-radiometer “Liulin” worked on board of MIR space station. Device measured the absorbed dose rate and the flux of penetrating particles. The analysis of the data hows the following new results:

In October 1989 and after March 24, 1991, two additional stable maximums in flux channel were observed in the southern-eastern part of South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA). These two maximums existed at least several months and seem to be due to trapped high energy electron and proton fluxes. In April 1991 additional maximums were localized in the following geographical coordinates regions: LATITUDE = (−35 °)–(−50 °) LONGITUDE = 332 ° − 16 ° and lat.(−46 °)–(−52 °) long. 360 ° − 60 °. Additional maximums diffusion occurs inside radiation belt. Appearance of these maximums seems to be closely connected with preceding powerful solar proton events and associated geomagnetic dynamics of new belt disturbances. After the series of solar proton events in June 1991 we observed significant enhancement of this new radiation belt formation. To achieve sufficient accuracy of dose rate predictions in low Earth orbits the structure and dynamics of new belt should be carefully analyzed to be included in a new environment model.

From the inter comparison of the data from “Liulin” and French developed tissue equivalent LET spectrometer NAUSICAA in the time period August–November 1992 we come to the following conclusions: Mainly there is good agreement between both data sets for absorbed dose in the region of SAA; Different situation of the instruments on the station can explain the cases when differences up to 2 times are observed; At high latitudes usually the tissue equivalent absorbed dose observations are 2 times larger than “Liulin” doses.     

Towards a new remote sensing order?

This Viewpoint argues that the 1986 UN Principles on Remote Sensing have failed to anticipate the growth and broadening of the Earth observation field and are now less relevant. It traces the development of remote sensing: from a narrow government-controlled base, three distinct sectors of military, civil (i.e. public) and commercial Earth observation can now be distinguished and the latter is making images ever more widely and easily available. There has been no international effort to adjust the international legal regime to this changing environment and even the USA's remote sensing policy has basically been reactive. It is impossible now to conceive an overarching remote sensing policy and the challenge will be to shape each sectoral regime appropriately.