A review of bird-like flapping wing with high aspect ratio

Bird-like flapping-wing vehicles with a high aspect ratio have the potential to fulfill missions given to micro air vehicles, such as high-altitude reconnaissance, surveillance, rescue, and bird group guidance, due to their good loading and long endurance capacities. Biologists and aeronautical researchers have explored the mystery of avian flight and made efforts to reproduce flapping flight in bioinspired aircraft for decades. However, the cognitive depth from theory to practice is still very limited. The mechanism of generating sufficient lift and thrust during avian flight is still not fully understood. Moving wings with unique biological structures such as feathers make modeling, simulation, experimentation, and analysis much more difficult. This paper reviews the research progress on bird-like flapping wings from flight mechanisms to modeling. Commonly used numerical computing methods are briefly compared. The aeroelastic problems are also highlighted. The results of the investigation show that a leading-edge vortex can be found during avian flight. Its induction and maintenance may have a close relationship with wing configuration, kinematics and deformation. The present models of flapping wings are mainly two-dimensional airfoils or three-dimensional single root-jointed geometric plates, which still exhibit large differences from real bird wings. Aeroelasticity is encouraged to consider the nonignorable effect on aerodynamic performance due to large-scale nonlinear deformation. Introducing appropriate flexibility can improve the peak values and efficiencies of lift and thrust, but the detailed conclusions always have strong background dependence.     

扑翼的变刚度设计及其对升力和推力的影响

为提高扑翼飞行器的升力和推力以提高其飞行性能,运用生物扑翼的仿生原理,研究扑翼飞行器的扑翼升力和扑翼推力随扑翼刚度变化的机理。借鉴"变刚度关节机构和平面转动冗余并联机构通过调节张力改变刚度"这一机构学原理,运用变刚度关节机构相互串联实现扑翼在扑动方向上变刚度,同时运用平面转动冗余并联机构实现扑翼在扭转方向上变刚度。建立扑翼的扑动关节刚度和扭转机构刚度随预张力变化的模型,并通过实验和仿真验证扑翼扑动关节刚度和扭转机构刚度随预张力的变化。研究扑翼的升力和推力与扑翼刚度之间的关系,验证了通过调节扑翼刚度匹配其扑动频率可以提高扑翼的升力和推力。     

微型扑翼飞行器扑翼/尾翼气动干扰的数值研究

以二维刚性约束条件下的微型扑翼飞行器模型为研究对象,在动网格技术基础上,应用非定常数值分析手段对比分析了单翼/纵列翼布局的气动性能,深入研究了纵列翼缩减频率、扑翼—尾翼无量纲水平间距、来流攻角对其气动性能的影响.结果表明:①纵列翼尾翼对扑翼产生正效应干扰,相对于单翼布局,扑翼—尾翼无量纲水平间距为0.5倍翼型弦长时的纵列翼布局的推力系数和推进效率分别增加28.7%和5.7%;②缩减频率是影响推力的关键参数,随着缩减频率的增加,脱落涡的强度增加,推力系数增大.对于单翼、纵列翼两种布局模式,当缩减频率在1.0附近时推进效率达到最优;③对于纵列翼布局,在扑翼—尾翼无量纲水平间距为1.1倍翼型弦长时推进效率达到峰值;④在0°~20°来流攻角变化范围内,随着来流攻角的增加,升力系数增加,推力系数减小,当来流攻角大于9°时,两种布局的推力均为负值.      

小型和微型无人机的气动特点和设计

讨论了当前包括固定翼、扑翼和微型旋翼的小型无人驾驶飞行器(SUAV)和微型无人驾驶飞行器(MAV)的进展和未来发展可能涉及的技术问题。讨论了低雷诺数空气动力特性,包括分离气泡和展弦比的影响。介绍了用于拍动翼的非定常空气动力特性和高升力机理。讨论了目前存在的2种设计方法——多学科/多目标优化设计和探索式/进化式的设计方法,以及在设计中柔性翼和主动智能控制的重要性。     

Unsteady aerodynamics and flow control for flapping wing flyers

The creation of micro air vehicles (MAVs) of the same general sizes and weight as natural fliers has spawned renewed interest in flapping wing flight. With a wingspan of approximately 15 cm and a flight speed of a few meters per second, MAVs experience the same low Reynolds number (10⁴–10⁵) flight conditions as their biological counterparts. In this flow regime, rigid fixed wings drop dramatically in aerodynamic performance while flexible flapping wings gain efficacy and are the preferred propulsion method for small natural fliers. Researchers have long realized that steady-state aerodynamics does not properly capture the physical phenomena or forces present in flapping flight at this scale. Hence, unsteady flow mechanisms must dominate this regime. Furthermore, due to the low flight speeds, any disturbance such as gusts or wind will dramatically change the aerodynamic conditions around the MAV. In response, a suitable feedback control system and actuation technology must be developed so that the wing can maintain its aerodynamic efficiency in this extremely dynamic situation; one where the unsteady separated flow field and wing structure are tightly coupled and interact nonlinearly. For instance, birds and bats control their flexible wings with muscle tissue to successfully deal with rapid changes in the flow environment. Drawing from their example, perhaps MAVs can use lightweight actuators in conjunction with adaptive feedback control to shape the wing and achieve active flow control. This article first reviews the scaling laws and unsteady flow regime constraining both biological and man-made fliers. Then a summary of vortex dominated unsteady aerodynamics follows. Next, aeroelastic coupling and its effect on lift and thrust are discussed. Afterwards, flow control strategies found in nature and devised by man to deal with separated flows are examined. Recent work is also presented in using microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) actuators and angular speed variation to achieve active flow control for MAVs. Finally, an explanation for aerodynamic gains seen in flexible versus rigid membrane wings, derived from an unsteady three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics model with an integrated distributed control algorithm, is presented.     

扑翼飞行器动力系统建模方法

为快速评估扑翼飞行器的航时,便于针对不同扑动翼进行动力系统设计与优化,逐步减少实物验证与试飞,加快扑翼飞行器的研制,基于实验数据参数辨识的方法建立了包含直流无刷电机、电调（ESC）、锂电池和扑动机构等扑翼飞行器动力系统组件的动态模型,其中电机模型相对误差小于10%,锂电池动态模型相对误差小于6%;提出了一种基于风洞试验气动数据和功率数据的扑动轴瞬时气动载荷半经验高精度建模方法,解决了气动载荷测量较为困难的问题,模型确定系数大于0.89;集成以上模型后的扑翼飞行器仿真系统还包含扑动翼周期平均气动模型、平尾气动模型和纵向控制模型,确保仿真在动态配平状态下进行,可进行全任务剖面航时仿真,航时仿真与实际试飞结果相比误差小于3%。集成的扑翼飞行器仿真系统采用模块化建模思想,各模型参数独立可调,能进一步应用于扑翼飞行器多学科优化等研究。     

一种非对称折叠扑翼的风洞试验与数值模拟

为了解鸟类翅膀折叠运动的作用,对一个专利中的折叠扑翼机构进行了数学建模,外翼的折叠运动由非定常过程中的气动力、弹性恢复力矩和惯性力决定.利用风洞试验和数值模拟两种方式对该折叠扑翼模型进行了研究.数值模拟和风洞试验结果表明:相对于非折叠扑翼,折叠翼能够有效提高平均升力;在一定范围内增加内翼扑动频率可以提高折叠翼平均升力系...     

多段柔性变体扑翼飞行器设计

多段柔性变体扑翼模仿海鸥翅膀的复杂运动.观察海鸥翅膀的运动周期,设计了包含慢频率扑动、展向折弯、弦向扭转和结构柔性变形的扑翼模型,并应用准定常方法计算气动力,为该扑翼飞行器设计提供依据.在CATIA和3DMAX中设计多段柔性变体扑翼机的三维模型和运动模拟,制作样机进行飞行试验,研究其平飞、爬升、偏航等飞行姿态,结果表明升力和推力与数值计算结果吻合.相较于原有扑翼飞行器,多段柔性变体扑翼飞行器可以慢频率扑动飞行,调整扑翼形状.      

Recent progress in flapping wing aerodynamics and aeroelasticity

Micro air vehicles (MAVs) have the potential to revolutionize our sensing and information gathering capabilities in areas such as environmental monitoring and homeland security. Flapping wings with suitable wing kinematics, wing shapes, and flexible structures can enhance lift as well as thrust by exploiting large-scale vortical flow structures under various conditions. However, the scaling invariance of both fluid dynamics and structural dynamics as the size changes is fundamentally difficult. The focus of this review is to assess the recent progress in flapping wing aerodynamics and aeroelasticity. It is realized that a variation of the Reynolds number (wing sizing, flapping frequency, etc.) leads to a change in the leading edge vortex (LEV) and spanwise flow structures, which impacts the aerodynamic force generation. While in classical stationary wing theory, the tip vortices (TiVs) are seen as wasted energy, in flapping flight, they can interact with the LEV to enhance lift without increasing the power requirements. Surrogate modeling techniques can assess the aerodynamic outcomes between two- and three-dimensional wing. The combined effect of the TiVs, the LEV, and jet can improve the aerodynamics of a flapping wing. Regarding aeroelasticity, chordwise flexibility in the forward flight can substantially adjust the projected area normal to the flight trajectory via shape deformation, hence redistributing thrust and lift. Spanwise flexibility in the forward flight creates shape deformation from the wing root to the wing tip resulting in varied phase shift and effective angle of attack distribution along the wing span. Numerous open issues in flapping wing aerodynamics are highlighted.     

基于非定常涡格法的扑翼飞行器气动特性优化

旨在为柔性扑翼飞行器的翼面选型与设计提供一定依据,研究其气动优化.建立了扑翼的非定常涡格法(UVLM)尾涡模型;采用面向对象的编程技术对该模型进行求解并引入GPU流式编程技术实现了UVLM并行计算,使其执行效率提高了3倍;以升力和推力的最大化为目标,并采用模式搜索法对扑翼的扑动与俯仰运动相位差、扑动频率与柔性扭转角以及翼面结构进行了优化.结果显示,要获得尽可能大的气动推力,翼面应设计成倒梯形且其外翼段应具较大面积,要使升力最大化则需将翼面设计成正梯形布局并应使内翼段面积较大;为进一步提高FMAV推力,应在增大扑动频率的同时适当减小翼面的柔性扭转角.研究表明,内嵌UVLM的模式搜索法可望成为FMAV气动优化的一个重要工具.     

侧向随动力作用下大展弦比柔性机翼的稳定性

 随动力能够诱发弹性结构发生颤振失稳。以侧向随动力和集中质量分别模拟发动机推力和外挂质量,考虑机翼垂直弯曲-扭转刚度比、集中质量大小、侧向随动力和集中质量的位置以及机翼后掠角和上反角的影响,研究了受侧向随动力作用的大展弦比柔性机翼的气动弹性稳定性。数值模拟所采用的大展弦比柔性机翼非线性气动弹性模型耦合了几何精确完全本征运动梁模型和ONERA动失速非定常气动力模型,该模型考虑了几何非线性、动失速和材料各向异性。模拟结果表明,侧向随动力对机翼颤振可以具有稳定作用,其具体表现依赖于若干变参数的影响,如：减小机翼垂直弯曲-扭转刚度比;发动机吊舱靠近翼根布置;使发动机推力作用点在法向上与机翼弹性轴靠近;单纯的集中质量避免布置在柔性机翼中部,且布置在机翼弹性轴之前或下方,这些设计或布置均有利于提高带发动机吊舱/有效载荷外挂的柔性机翼的气动弹性稳定性。     

The thrust and lift of an ornithopter's membrane wings with simple flapping motion

Human beings flying with the help of aircrafts of various kinds have been able to fly for about one century. Although the flapping wings of animals served as an inspiration to pioneers of human flight, we don't really understand how they work. In this study, we employ the concept of four-bar linkage to design a flapping mechanism which simulates a flapping motion of a bird. Wind tunnel tests were performed to measure the lift and thrust of the mechanical membrane flapping wing under different frequency, speed, and angle of attack. It is observed that the flexibility of the wing structure will affect the thrust and lift force due to its deformation at high flapping frequency. The lift force will increase with the increase of the flapping frequency under the corresponding flying speed. For the same flapping frequency, the flying speed can be increased by decrease of the angle of attack with the trade of loosing some lift force. An angle of attack is necessary in a simple flapping motion in order to derive a lift force. The flapping motion generates the thrust to acquire the flying speed. The flying speed and angle of attack combine to generate the lift force for flying.     

扑翼飞行器柔性翼的动力分析与实验

针对小型扑翼飞行器柔性翼的特点,提出了一种利用欧拉方程结合有限元分析计算柔性扑翼上气动力的分析方法,并进行了样机推力测量实验.实验证明计算结果能很好地反映出扑动周期中不同时刻的推力特征.该方法既可以得到宏观上的推力、扑动阻力,又可以得到不同扑动参数下翼上各处的气动力分布,为柔性扑翼的设计优化提供帮助.      

大攻角机翼的气动弹性计算方法

 本文利用大攻角带分离流机翼的完全非定常非线性气动力计算方法,通过与机翼运动方程的同时求解,在时间域内实现了大攻角机翼非线性气动弹性的数值模拟,根据弹性机翼各种状态下的运动过程,可以得到大攻角机翼的颤振速度等重要参数以及亚临界、超临界等飞行状态的运动规律。算例结果表明,大攻角下机翼的气动弹性问题需引起足够的重视。     

主动变形扑翼飞行器的设计和风洞测力试验研究

主动变形扑翼可以模仿鸟翼飞行时的复杂运动。为了了解主动变形扑翼飞行器的气动特性,在研究鸟类骨骼结构和翅膀及尾翼运动规律的基础上,设计并制造了一种基于机器人技术的主动变形扑翼飞行器;给出了主动变形扑翼飞行器的机构运动规律函数,并设计出机构运动控制系统;在低速风洞中对此飞行器进行了一系列测力试验,研究了主动变形扑翼的升力、推力特性,以及风速、扑动频率、扑动幅度、伸展相位等参数对升力和推力的影响,并与常规扑翼进行了对比分析。试验结果表明,较之常规扑翼,主动变形扑翼可以显著增加升力和增强对不同飞行状态的适应能力。     

Flapping and flexible wings for biological and micro air vehicles

Micro air vehicles (MAVs) with wing spans of 15 cm or less, and flight speed of 30–60 kph are of interest for military and civilian applications. There are two prominent features of MAV flight: (i) low Reynolds number (10⁴–10⁵), resulting in unfavorable aerodynamic conditions to support controlled flight, and (ii) small physical dimensions, resulting in certain favorable scaling characteristics including structural strength, reduced stall speed, and low inertia. Based on observations of biological flight vehicles, it appears that wing motion and flexible airfoils are two key attributes for flight at low Reynolds number. The small size of MAVs corresponds in nature to small birds, which do not glide like large birds, but instead flap with considerable change of wing shape during a single flapping cycle. With flapping and flexible wings, birds overcome the deteriorating aerodynamic performance under steady flow conditions by employing unsteady mechanisms. In this article, we review both biological and aeronautical literatures to present salient features relevant to MAVs. We first summarize scaling laws of biological and micro air vehicles involving wing span, wing loading, vehicle mass, cruising speed, flapping frequency, and power. Next we discuss kinematics of flapping wings and aerodynamic models for analyzing lift, drag and power. Then we present issues related to low Reynolds number flows and airfoil shape selection. Recent work on flexible structures capable of adjusting the airfoil shape in response to freestream variations is also discussed.     

An experimental study of elastic properties of dragonfly-like flapping wings for use in biomimetic micro air vehicles (BMAVs)

This article studies the elastic properties of several biomimetic micro air vehicle (BMAV) wings that are based on a dragonfly wing. BMAVs are a new class of unmanned micro-sized air vehicles that mimic the flapping wing motion of flying biological organisms (e.g., insects, birds, and bats). Three structurally identical wings were fabricated using different materials: acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polylactic acid (PLA), and acrylic. Simplified wing frame structures were fabricated from these materials and then a nanocomposite film was adhered to them which mimics the membrane of an actual dragonfly. These wings were then attached to an electromagnetic actu-ator and passively flapped at frequencies of 10–250 Hz. A three-dimensional high frame rate imag-ing system was used to capture the flapping motions of these wings at a resolution of 320 pixels × 240 pixels and 35000 frames per second. The maximum bending angle, maximum wing tip deflection, maximum wing tip twist angle, and wing tip twist speed of each wing were measured and compared to each other and the actual dragonfly wing. The results show that the ABS wing has considerable flexibility in the chordwise direction, whereas the PLA and acrylic wings show better conformity to an actual dragonfly wing in the spanwise direction. Past studies have shown that the aerodynamic performance of a BMAV flapping wing is enhanced if its chordwise flexibility is increased and its spanwise flexibility is reduced. Therefore, the ABS wing (fabricated using a 3D printer) shows the most promising results for future applications.     

翼梢装置对某机翼气动弹性行为影响研究

以大客某方案机翼为基本翼,通过数值模拟的方法研究了翼梢装置对机翼气动弹性特性影响,包括静气动弹性及颤振特性。其中通过CFD/CSD弱耦合求解的方法研究其静气动弹性响应,气动力计算采用面元法,结构响应计算采用结构有限元法,通过插值实现翼面气动力与有限元节点力之间的传递,以及有限元模型与气动网格之间的变形传递。对基本翼及带翼梢装置机翼静力学有限元模型局部修改得到动力学模型,应用MSC NASTRAN进行颤振特性分析。研究发现翼梢装置使得机翼的气动弹性特性不同程度均有降低,而不同翼梢装置对其影响又有所不同,可见,翼梢装置的设计在追求气动特性改善的同时必须关注其带来的结构特性的损失。     

大展弦比复合材料前掠翼气动弹性分析与优化

对具有不同前掠角和蒙皮偏轴角的大展弦比复合材料机翼进行了气动弹性建模与计算,以分析前掠角和蒙皮偏轴角对这类结构的静、动气动弹性特性的影响。使用遗传／敏度混合优化算法对几种典型前掠角和蒙皮偏轴角情况下的机翼进行了气动弹性优化设计研究,在满足强度、位移、发散速度和颤振速度等约束条件的前提下,以机翼各部件复合材料铺层的厚度为设计变量,对结构进行重量最小化设计。此外,还分析了蒙皮和突缘的铺层厚度沿展向变化的函数的幂次对优化结果的影响。     

Nonlinear dynamics of a flapping rotary wing: Modeling and optimal wing kinematic analysis

The analysis of the passive rotation feature of a micro Flapping Rotary Wing(FRW)applicable for Micro Air Vehicle(MAV) design is presented in this paper. The dynamics of the wing and its influence on aerodynamic performance of FRW is studied at low Reynolds number(~10~3).The FRW is modeled as a simplified system of three rigid bodies: a rotary base with two flapping wings. The multibody dynamic theory is employed to derive the motion equations for FRW. A quasi-steady aerodynamic model is utilized for the calculation of the aerodynamic forces and moments. The dynamic motion process and the effects of the kinematics of wings on the dynamic rotational equilibrium of FWR and the aerodynamic performances are studied. The results show that the passive rotation motion of the wings is a continuous dynamic process which converges into an equilibrium rotary velocity due to the interaction between aerodynamic thrust, drag force and wing inertia. This causes a unique dynamic time-lag phenomena of lift generation for FRW, unlike the normal flapping wing flight vehicle driven by its own motor to actively rotate its wings. The analysis also shows that in order to acquire a high positive lift generation with high power efficiency and small dynamic time-lag, a relative high mid-up stroke angle within 7–15° and low mid-down stroke angle within -40° to -35° are necessary. The results provide a quantified guidance for design option of FRW together with the optimal kinematics of motion according to flight performance requirement.