Propagation and origin of ultra high-energy cosmic rays

Propagation of UHE protons through CMB radiation leaves the imprint on energy spectrum in the form of Greisen–Zatsepin–Kuzmin (GZK) cutoff, bump (pile-up protons) and dip. The dip is a feature in energy range 1 × 10¹⁸–4 × 10¹⁹ eV, caused by electron–positron pair production on CMB photons. Calculated for power-law generation spectrum with index γ_g = 2.7, the shape of the dip is confirmed with high accuracy by data of Akeno-AGASA, HiRes, Yakutsk and Fly’s Eye detectors. The predicted shape of the dip is robust: it is valid for the rectilinear and diffusive propagation, for different discreteness in the source distribution, for local source overdensity, deficit, etc. This property of the dip allows us to use it for energy calibration of the detectors. The energy shift λ for each detector is determined by minimum χ² in comparison of observed and calculated dip. After this energy calibration the absolute fluxes, measured by AGASA, HiRes and Yakutsk detectors remarkably coincide in energy region 1 × 10¹⁸–1 × 10²⁰ eV. Below the characteristic energy E_c ≈ 1 × 10¹⁸ eV the spectrum of the dip flattens for both diffusive and rectilinear propagation, and more steep galactic spectrum becomes dominant at E < E_c. The energy of transition E_tr < E_c approximately coincides with the position of the second knee E_2kn, observed in the cosmic ray spectrum. The dip-induced transition from galactic to extragalactic cosmic rays at the second knee is compared with traditional model of transition at ankle, the feature observed at energy 1 × 10¹⁹ eV.     

An X-ray survey of a complete sample of 3CR radio galaxies

Imaging X-ray observations of normal spiral galaxies show extended and complex x-ray emission, easily explainable with a complex of unresolved X-ray sources. A variety of nuclear sources, including starburst nuclei and miniature active nuclei are seen. The total (0.5–3.0 keV) luminosities are in the range of Lx 10³⁸ - 10⁴⁰ erg s⁻¹. The X-ray luminosity is linearly correlated with the optical luminosity. It is also correlated with the radio continuum luminosity at 21cm, but following a power law relationship with an exponent α = 0.6. This latter relationship might have implications on the Population I X-ray binary formation models and/or on the origin of the radio continuum emission in spiral galaxies     

X-ray spectra and time variability of active galactic nuclei

The X-ray spectra of broad line active galactic nuclei of all types (Seyfert I's, NELG's, Broadline radio galaxies) is well fit by a power law in the .5–100 keV band of mean energy slope α = .68±.15. There is, as yet, no strong evidence for time variability of this slope in a given object. The constraints that this places on simple models of the central energy source are discussed. BL Lac objects have quite different X-ray spectral properties and show pronounced X-ray spectral variability.On time scales longer than 12 hours most radio quiet AGN do not show strong, ΔI/I > .5, variability. The probability of variability of these AGN seems to be inversely related to their luminosity. However characteristic timescales for variability have not been measured for many objects. This general lack of variability may imply that most AGN are well below the Eddington limit. Radio bright AGN tend to be more variable on long, τ 6 month, timescales.     

Antiparticle content in the magnetosphere

In the present work we assess the stable and transient antiparticle content of planetary magnetospheres, and subsequently we consider their capture and application to high delta-v space propulsion. We estimate the total antiparticle mass contained within the Earth’s magnetosphere to assess the expediency of such usage. Using Earth’s magnetic field region as an example, we have considered the various source mechanisms that are applicable to a planetary magnetosphere, the confinement duration versus transport processes, and the antiparticle loss mechanisms. We have estimated the content of the trapped population of antiparticles magnetically confined following production in the exosphere due to nuclear interactions between high energy cosmic rays (CR) and constituents of the residual planetary upper atmosphere.The galactic antiprotons that directly penetrate into the Earth’s magnetosphere are themselves secondary by its nature, i.e. produced in nuclear reactions of the cosmic rays passing through the interstellar matter. These antiproton fluxes are modified, dependent on energy, when penetrating into the heliosphere and subsequently into planetary magnetospheres. During its lifetime in the Galaxy, CR pass through the small grammage of the interstellar matter where they produce secondary antiprotons. In contrast to this, antiprotons generated by the same CR in magnetosphere are locally produced at a path length of several tens g/cm² of matter in the ambient planetary upper atmosphere. Due to the latter process, the resulting magnetically confined fluxes significantly exceed the fluxes of the galactic antiprotons in the Earth’s vicinity by up to two orders of magnitude at some energies.The radiation belt antiparticles can possibly be extracted with an electromagnetic-based “scoop” device. The antiparticles could be concentrated by and then stored within the superimposed magnetic field structure of such a device. In future developments, it is anticipated that the energy of the captured antiparticles (both rest energy and kinetic energy) can be adapted for use as a fuel for propelling spacecraft to high velocities for remote solar system missions.     

Launch and commissioning of the PAMELA experiment on board the Resurs-DK1 satellite

PAMELA is a satellite borne experiment designed to study with great accuracy cosmic rays of galactic, solar, and trapped nature in a wide energy range (protons: 80 MeV–700 GeV, electrons 50 MeV–400 GeV). Main objective is the study of the antimatter component: antiprotons (80 MeV–190 GeV), positrons (50 MeV–270 GeV) and search for antimatter (with a precision of the order of 10⁻⁸). The experiment, housed on board the Russian Resurs-DK1 satellite, was launched on June, 15th 2006 in a 350 × 600 km orbit with an inclination of 70°. The detector consists of a permanent magnet spectrometer core to provide rigidity and charge sign information, a Time-of-Flight system for velocity and charge information, a silicon–tungsten calorimeter and a neutron detector for lepton/hadron identification. An anticounter system is used off-line to reject false triggers coming from the satellite. In self-trigger mode the calorimeter, the neutron detector and a shower tail catcher are capable of an independent measure of the lepton (e⁺ + e⁻) component up to 2 TeV. In this work we focus on the first months of operations of the experiment during the commissioning phase.     

Analytical approach to cosmic ray ionization by nuclei with charge Z in the middle atmosphere – Distribution of galactic CR effects

The effects of galactic and solar cosmic rays (CR) in the middle atmosphere are considered in this work. A new analytical approach for CR ionization by protons and nuclei with charge Z in the lower ionosphere and middle atmosphere is developed in this paper. For this purpose the ionization losses (dE/dh) according to the Bohr–Bethe–Bloch formula for the energetic charged particles are approximated in three different energy intervals. More accurate expressions for energy decrease E(h) and electron production rate profiles q(h) are derived. The obtained formulas allow comparatively easy computer programming. The integrand in q(h) gives the possibility for application of adequate numerical methods – such as Romberg method or Gauss quadrature, for the solution of the mathematical problem. On this way the process of interaction of cosmic ray particles with the upper, middle and lower atmosphere will be described much more realistically. Computations for cosmic ray ionization in the middle atmosphere are made. The full CR composition is taken into account: protons, Helium (α-particles), light L, medium M, heavy H and very heavy VH group of nuclei.     

Dark Matter searches with GLAST

The Gamma-ray Large Area Space Telescope (GLAST), scheduled to be launched in fall 2007, is the next generation satellite for high-energy gamma-ray astronomy. The Large Area Telescope (LAT), GLAST main instrument, with a wide field of view (>2 sr), a large effective area (>8000 cm² at 1 GeV) and 20 MeV–300 GeV energy range, will provide excellent high energy gamma-ray observations for Dark Matter searches. In this paper we examine the potential of the LAT to detect gamma-rays coming from WIMPS annihilation in the context of supersymmetry. As an example, two search regions are investigated: the galactic center and the galactic satellites.     

Asymmetric precipitation in a coronal loop as explanation of a singular observed spectrum

Almost 10 years of solar submillimeter observations have shown new aspects of solar activity, such as the presence of rapid solar spikes associated with the launch of coronal mass ejections and an increasing submillimeter spectral component in flares. We analyse the singular microwave–submillimeter spectrum of an M class solar flare on 20 December, 2002. Flux density observations measured by Sun patrol telescopes and the Solar Submillimeter Telescope are used to build the radio spectrum, which is fitted using Ramaty’s code. At submillimeter frequencies the spectrum shows a component different from the microwave classical burst. The fitting is achieved proposing two homogeneous sources of emission. This theoretical fitting is in agreement with differential precipitation through a magnetically asymmetric loop or set of loops. From a coronal magnetic field model we infer an asymmetric magnetic structure at the flare location. The model proposed to quantify the differential precipitation rates due to the asymmetry results in a total precipitation ratio Q₂/Q₁≈10⁴–10⁵, where Q₁(Q₂) represents the total precipitation in the loop foot with the high (low) magnetic field intensity. This ratio agrees with the electron total number ratio of the two sources proposed to fit the radio spectrum.     

Modeling and data analysis of a Forbush decrease

We study the Forbush decrease of the galactic cosmic ray intensity observed in 9–25 September 2005 using the experimental data and a newly developed time-dependent three dimensional modeling. We analyze neutron monitors and muon telescopes, and the interplanetary magnetic field data. We demonstrate a clear relationship between the rigidity (R) spectrum exponent (γ) of the Forbush decrease and the exponent (ν) of the power spectral density of the components of the interplanetary magnetic field in the frequency range of ∼ 10⁻⁶–10 ⁻⁵ Hz. We confirm that an inclusion of the time-dependent changes of the exponent ν makes the newly developed nonstationary three dimensional model of the Forbush decrease compatible with the experimental data. Also, we show that the changes of the rigidity spectrum exponent γ does not depend on the level of convection of the galactic cosmic rays stream by solar wind; depending on the changes of the exponent ν, i.e. on the state of the turbulence of the interplanetary magnetic field.     

Observations of 1–30 MeV gamma rays from the galactic center

Preliminary results are reported for gamma ray observations of the galactic center region made during a 15 hour balloon flight from Alice Springs, Australia on April 18, 1979. The observations were carried out with the UCR double-scatter gamma-ray telescope at energies of 1 to 30 MeV. The observations are compatible with a galactic source of approximately equal brightness along the region 300°<ℓII<60°. The energy distribution joins smoothly to previous spark chamber results at energies above 30 MeV and to scintillator results below 1 MeV. It appears to be a combination of nuclear gamma ray lines superimposed on a bremsstrahlung spectrum with a power law (1.3±.7) × 10⁻³ E⁻(^1.7±.2). The ¹²C* line at 4.4 MeV appears to be present with a significance of about 16σ. The flux in the line is (6±3) × 10⁻⁴photons cm⁻²s⁻¹rad⁻¹. The oxygen line at 6.1 MeV does not seem to appear significantly above background.     

Prognoz-6 data about ultraviolet sky background in dark and Milky Way regions of the sky

Ultraviolet spectra (1100–1900 Å) of the sky background of 10 wide angle (6°×6°) regions obtained between 70 000 km and 200 000 km from the Earth with the photoelectric spectrometer “GALACTIKA” on board the satellite “PROGNOZ-6” are considered. The spectral energy distribution of the sky background, after subtraction of the stellar component, is similar for regions on both sides of the Milky Way and exhibits a strong U.V. light contribution. On the contrary, the Milky Way (l_II=190° b_II=+6°) is less rich in far U.V. light; this can be related to the predominance of an expected selective absorption near the galactic plane. The nature of U.V. excess at high galactic latitudes needs further investigations.     

Thermal net flux measurements on the pioneer Venus entry probes

Corrected thermal net radiation measurements from the four Pioneer Venus entry probes at latitudes of 60°N, 31°S, 27°S, and 4°N are presented. Three main conclusions can be drawn from comparisons of the corrected fluxes with radiative transfer calculations: (1) sounder probe net fluxes are consistent with the number density of large cloud particles (mode 3) measured on the same probe, but the IR measurements as a whole are most consistent with a significantly reduced mode 3 contribution to the cloud opacity; (2) at all probe sites, the fluxes imply that the upper cloud contains a yet undetected source of IR opacity; and (3) beneath the clouds the fluxes at a given altitude increase with latitude, suggesting greater IR cooling below the clouds at high latitudes and water vapor mixing ratios of about 2–5×10^?5 near 60°, 2–5×10^?4 near 30°, and >5×10^?4 near the equator.     

Propagation of cosmic-ray electrons in the Galaxy

We formulate the global propagation model of cosmic-ray electrons including the source region, which is currently considered to be supernova remnants (SNRs). The model is characterized by the escape rate of electrons from SNRs into the interstellar space. It becomes clear that the energy index of the escape rate influences the high energy side of the interstellar spectrum and makes it possible to explain the observed data up to 2 TeV in the case of source spectral index smaller than 2.2 that is expected from the radio spectrum in SNRs. The escape lifetime of electrons in SNRs is also discussed by using the ratio of the radio flux in two regions: SNRs and the Galaxy. The result shows the mean lifetime in SNRs of ∼10⁴ yr around 1 GeV, which corresponds to the SNR age in the Sedov phase.     

Expanding shells of young pulsars as sources of high-energy neutrinos

The initial power outputs P_o of pulsars are not yet well known, but these seem to follow approximately a distribution law N(> P_o) ∝ P_o⁻ⁿ where 0.5 ≤ n ≤ 1.0. It seems likely that P_o ≥ 10³⁸ ergs/sec. With these assumptions, we estimate that the DUMAND detector can record ≥ 10³ high-energy (> 4 TeV) neutrino events in a four-month period per Galactic supernova; (in our Galaxy, these are estimated to occur at the rate of about 8 per century.) Neutrinos from supernova shells in the Virgo supercluster would be marginally detectable (one very bright supernova per decade at about 20 Mpc) if N(> P_o) ∝ P_o^−0.5, but undetectable if N(> P_o) ∝ P_o⁻¹. The diffuse flux summed over distant extragalactic supernovae is likely to be well below the detection threshold.     

Energy dependence of the rigidity spectrum of Forbush decrease of galactic cosmic ray intensity

We show that rigidity spectrum of Forbush decrease (Fd) of galactic cosmic ray (GCR) intensity in September 9–23, 2005 clearly depends on energy. We calculated rigidity spectrum of the Fd based on the neutron monitors and Nagoya muon telescope channels’ data divided in three groups according to their cut off rigidities. We found that temporal changes of rigidity spectrum exponent γ are approximately similar for all cut off rigidity groups, but γ values are the larger the higher are cut off rigidities. We conclude that rigidity spectrum of Fd is hard for lower energy range and is soft for the higher energy range. We believe that an energy dependence of the power law rigidity spectrum of Fd is observed owing to the preferential convection–diffusion mechanism during Fd in September 9–23, 2005. It is a reflection of an influence of the temporal changes of the structure of the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) turbulence in different range of frequency f during Fd. Particularly, a decisive role in formation of the character of the rigidity spectrum belongs to the changes of the exponent ν of the power spectral density (PSD) of the IMF turbulence (PSD ∝ f^−ν). The exponent ν is greater for high frequency region of the IMF turbulence (responsible for scattering of low rigidity particles of GCR), than for low frequency region of the IMF turbulence (being responsible for scattering of higher rigidity particles). Also, we challenge to estimate an existence of slab/2D structure of solar wind turbulence during the Fd in September 9–23, 2005 based on the distribution of average turbulence energy among the IMF’s components.     

Low energy galactic cosmic rays in the heliosphere

The flux of galactic cosmic rays (GCR) extends over a wide range of energies (from 10⁸ to 10²⁰ eV); it has a strong dependence on particle energy. Given the large span of energies the detection techniques, transport mechanisms and other characteristics vary as energy increases. In the low energy region (<10¹² eV) the flux of GCR is modulated by the solar activity. Continuous registers are necessary to study intensity variations that must have their origin in the Sun. Detectors were designed and constructed for the purpose, they operate since the middle of the last century providing valuable information to study recurrent periodicities and their relationship to those of solar phenomena, but also to elucidate whose are the relevant transport mechanisms inside the heliosphere. A brief review of the advancement in the comprehension of these phenomena is presented.     

Dark matter search with the CALET detector on-board ISS

The CALorimetric Electron Telescope, CALET, mission is proposed for the observation of high-energy electrons and gamma-rays at the Exposed Facility of the Japanese Experiment Module on the International Space Station. The CALET has a capability to observe the electrons (without separation between e⁺ and e⁻) in 1 GeV–10 TeV and the gamma-rays in 20 MeV–several TeV with a high-energy resolution of 2% at 100 GeV, a good angular resolution of 0.06 degree at 100 GeV, and a high proton-rejection power of nearly 10⁶. The CALET has a geometrical factor of 1 m²sr, and the observation period is expected for more than three years. The very precise measurement of electrons enables us to detect a distinctive feature in the energy spectrum caused from WIMP dark matter in the Galactic halo. The excellent energy resolution of CALET, which is much better than GLAST or air Cherenkov telescopes over 10 GeV, enables us to detect gamma-ray lines in the sub-TeV region from WIMP dark matter annihilations. The CALET has, therefore, a unique capability to search for WIMP dark matter by the hybrid observations of electrons and gamma-rays.     

The PAMELA experiment: A space-borne observatory for heliospheric phenomena

PAMELA is a multi-purpose apparatus composed of a series of scintillator counters arranged at the extremities of a permanent magnet spectrometer to provide charge, time-of-flight and rigidity information. Lepton/hadron identification is performed by a silicon–tungsten calorimeter and a Neutron detector placed at the bottom of the device. An Anticounter system is used offline to reject false triggers coming from the satellite. The device was put into orbit on June 15th 2006 in a pressurized container on board the Russian Resurs-DK1 satellite. The satellite is flying along a high inclination (70°), low Earth orbit (350–600 km), allowing to perform measurements in different points and conditions of the geomagnetosphere. PAMELA main goal is a precise measurement of the antimatter ( 80 MeV–190 GeV, e⁺ 50 MeV–270 GeV) and matter (p 80–700 GeV, e⁻ 50 MeV–400 GeV) component of the galactic cosmic rays. In this paper we focus on the capabilites of observations of heliospheric cosmic rays: trapped and semi-trapped particles in the proton and electron belts, solar particle events, Jovian electrons will be studied in the three years of expected mission.     

The scaler mode in the Pierre Auger Observatory to study heliospheric modulation of cosmic rays

The impact of the solar activity on the heliosphere has a strong influence on the modulation of the flux of low energy galactic cosmic rays arriving at Earth. Different instruments, such as neutron monitors or muon detectors, have been recording the variability of the cosmic ray flux at ground level for several decades. Although the Pierre Auger Observatory was designed to observe cosmic rays at the highest energies, it also records the count rates of low energy secondary particles (the scaler mode) for the self-calibration of its surface detector array. From observations using the scaler mode at the Pierre Auger Observatory, modulation of galactic cosmic rays due to solar transient activity has been observed (e.g., Forbush decreases). Due to the high total count rate coming from the combined area of its detectors, the Pierre Auger Observatory (its detectors have a total area greater than 16,000 m²) detects a flux of secondary particles of the order of ∼10⁸ counts per minute. Time variations of the cosmic ray flux related to the activity of the heliosphere can be determined with high accuracy. In this paper we briefly describe the scaler mode and analyze a Forbush decrease together with the interplanetary coronal mass ejection that originated it. The Auger scaler data are now publicly available.