V: SEA LEVEL: Benefits of GRACE and GOCE to sea level studies

The recently published Third Assessment Reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change have underlined the scientific interest in, and practical importance of past and potential future sea level changes. Space gravity missions will provide major benefits to the understanding of the past, and, thereby, in the prediction of future, sea level changes in many ways. The proposal for the GOCE mission described well the improvements to be expected from improved gravity field and geoid models in oceanography (for example, in the measurement of the time-averaged, or ‘steady state’, ocean surface circulation and better estimation of ocean transports), in geophysics (in the improvement of geodynamic models for vertical land movements), in geodesy (in positioning of tide gauge data into the same reference frame as altimeter data, and in improvement of altimeter satellite orbits), and possibly in glaciology (in improved knowledge of bedrock topography and ice sheet mass fluxes). GRACE will make many important steps towards these ‘steady state’ aims. However, its main purpose is the provision of oceanographic (and hydrological and meteorological) temporally-varying gravity information, and should in effect function as a global ‘bottom pressure recorder’, providing further insight into the 3-D temporal variation of the ocean circulation, and of the global water budget in general. This paper summaries several of these issues, pointing the way towards improved accuracy of prediction of future sea level change. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The Mercury Laser Altimeter Instrument for the MESSENGER Mission

The Mercury Laser Altimeter (MLA) is one of the payload science instruments on the MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging (MESSENGER) mission, which launched on August 3, 2004. The altimeter will measure the round-trip time of flight of transmitted laser pulses reflected from the surface of the planet that, in combination with the spacecraft orbit position and pointing data, gives a high-precision measurement of surface topography referenced to Mercury’s center of mass. MLA will sample the planet’s surface to within a 1-m range error when the line-of-sight range to Mercury is less than 1,200 km under spacecraft nadir pointing or the slant range is less than 800 km. The altimeter measurements will be used to determine the planet’s forced physical librations by tracking the motion of large-scale topographic features as a function of time. MLA’s laser pulse energy monitor and the echo pulse energy estimate will provide an active measurement of the surface reflectivity at 1,064 nm. This paper describes the instrument design, prelaunch testing, calibration, and results of postlaunch testing.     

Lunar Magnetic Field Observation and Initial Global Mapping of Lunar Magnetic Anomalies by MAP-LMAG Onboard SELENE (Kaguya)

The magnetic field around the Moon has been successfully observed at a nominal altitude of ～100 km by the lunar magnetometer (LMAG) on the SELENE (Kaguya) spacecraft in a polar orbit since October 29, 2007. The LMAG mission has three main objectives: (1) mapping the magnetic anomaly of the Moon, (2) measuring the electromagnetic and plasma environment around the Moon and (3) estimating the electrical conductivity structure of the Moon. Here we review the instrumentation and calibration of LMAG and report the initial global mapping of the lunar magnetic anomaly at the nominal altitude. We have applied a new de-trending technique of the Bayesian procedure to multiple-orbit datasets observed in the tail lobe and in the lunar wake. Based on the nominal observation of 14 months, global maps of lunar magnetic anomalies are obtained with 95% coverage of the lunar surface. After altitude normalization and interpolation of the magnetic anomaly field by an inverse boundary value problem, we obtained full-coverage maps of the vector magnetic field at 100 km altitude and the radial component distribution on the surface. Relatively strong anomalies are identified in several basin-antipode regions and several near-basin and near-crater regions, while the youngest basin on the Moon, the Orientale basin, has no magnetic anomaly. These features well agree with characteristics of previous maps based on the Lunar Prospector observation. Relatively weak anomalies are distributed over most of the lunar surface. The surface radial-component distribution estimated from the inverse boundary value problem in the present study shows a good correlation with the radial component distribution at 30 km altitude by Lunar Prospector. Thus these weak anomalies over the lunar surface are not artifacts but likely to be originated from the lunar crustal magnetism, suggesting possible existence of an ancient global magnetic field such as a dynamo field of the early Moon. The possibility of the early lunar dynamo and the mechanism of magnetization acquisition will be investigated by a further study using the low-altitude data of the magnetic field by Kaguya.     

A geopause satellite system concept

The forthcoming 10 cm range tracking accuracy capability holds much promise in connection with a number of Earth and ocean dynamics investigations. These include a set of earthquake-related studies of fault motions and the Earth's tidal, polar and rotational motions, as well as studies of the gravity field and the sea surface topography which should furnish basic information about mass and heat flow in the oceans. The state of the orbit analysis art is presently at about the 10 m level, or about two orders of magnitude away from the 10 cm range accuracy capability expected in the next couple of years or so. The realization of a 10 cm orbit analysis capability awaits the solution of four kinds of problems, namely, those involving orbit determination and the lack of sufficient knowledge of tracking system biases, the gravity field, and tracking station locations. The Geopause satellite system concept offers promising approaches in connection with all of these areas. A typical Geopause satellite orbit has a 14 hour period, a mean height of about 4.6 Earth radii, and is nearly circular, polar, and normal to the ecliptic. At this height only a relatively few gravity terms have uncertainties corresponding to orbital perturbations above the decimeter level. The orbit s, in this sense, at the geopotential boundary, i.e., the geopause. The few remaining environmental quantities which may be significant can be determined by means of orbit analyses and accelerometers. The Geopause satellite system also provides the tracking geometery and coverage needed for determining the orbit, the tracking system biases and the station locations. Studies indicate that the Geopause satellite, tracked with a 2 cm ranging system from nine NASA affiliated sites, can yield decimeter station location accuracies. Five or more fundamental stations well distributed in longitude can view Geopause over the North Pole. This means not only that redundant data are available for determining tracking system biases, but also that both components of the polar motion can be observed frequently. When tracking Geopause, the NASA sites become a two-hemisphere configuration which is ideal for a number of Earth physics applications such as the observation of the polar motion with a time resolution of a fraction of a day. Geopause also provides the basic capability for satellite-to-satellite tracking of drag-free satellites for mapping the gravity field and altimeter satellites for surveying the sea surface topography. Geopause tracking a coplanar, drag-free satellite for two months to 0.03 mm per second accuracy can yield the geoid over the entire Earth to decimeter accuracy with 2.5° spatial resolution. Two Geopause satellites tracking a coplanar altimeter satellite can then yield ocean surface heights above the geoid with 7° spatial resolution every two weeks. These data will furnish basic boundary condition information about mass and heat flows in the oceans which are important in shaping weather and climate.     

How Operational Oceanography Can Benefit from Dynamic Topography Estimates as Derived from Altimetry and Improved Geoid

With a precise geoid, GOCE will allow an estimation of absolute dynamic topography from altimetry. The projected benefits to operational oceanography and its applications are analyzed herein. After a brief overview of operational oceanography, we explain how the new geoids will be used in the future to improve real time altimeter products and to better constrain modelling and data assimilation systems. A significant impact is expected both for mesoscale (e.g. better estimations and forecasts of currents for pollution monitoring, marine safety, offshore industry) and climate (better initialization of coupled ocean/atmosphere models) applications. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

An Investigation of the Mechanical Properties of Some Martian Regolith Simulants with Respect to the Surface Properties at the InSight Mission Landing Site

In support of the InSight mission in which two instruments (the SEIS seismometer and the \(\mbox{HP}^{3}\) heat flow probe) will interact directly with the regolith on the surface of Mars, a series of mechanical tests were conducted on three different regolith simulants to better understand the observations of the physical and mechanical parameters that will be derived from InSight. The mechanical data obtained were also compared to data on terrestrial sands. The density of the regolith strongly influences its mechanical properties, as determined from the data on terrestrial sands. The elastoplastic compression volume changes were investigated through oedometer tests that also provided estimates of possible changes in density with depth. The results of direct shear tests provided values of friction angles that were compared with that of a terrestrial sand, and an extrapolation to lower density provided a friction angle compatible with that estimated from previous observations on the surface of Mars. The importance of the contracting/dilating shear volume changes of sands on the dynamic penetration of the mole was determined, with penetration facilitated by the \(\sim1.3~\mbox{Mg/m}^{3}\) density estimated at the landing site. Seismic velocities, measured by means of piezoelectric bender elements in triaxial specimens submitted to various isotropic confining stresses, show the importance of the confining stress, with lesser influence of density changes under compression. A power law relation of velocity as a function of confining stress with an exponent of 0.3 was identified from the tests, allowing an estimate of the surface seismic velocity of 150 m/s. The effect on the seismic velocity of a 10% proportion of rock in the regolith was also studied. These data will be compared with in situ data measured by InSight after landing.     

Impact of Geoid Improvement on Ocean Mass and Heat Transport Estimates

One long-standing difficulty in estimating the large-scale ocean circulation is the inability to observe absolute current velocities. Both conventional hydrographic measurements and altimetric measurements provide observations of currents relative to an unknown velocity at a reference depth in the case of hydrographic data, and relative to mean currents calculated over some averaging period in the case of altimetric data. Space gravity missions together with altimetric observations have the potential to overcome this difficulty by providing absolute estimates of the velocity of surface oceanic currents. The absolute surface velocity estimates will in turn provide the reference level velocities that are necessary to compute absolute velocities at any depth level from hydrographic data. Several studies have been carried out to quantify the improvements expected from ongoing and future space gravity missions. The results of these studies in terms of volume flux estimates (transport of water masses) and heat flux estimates (transport of heat by the ocean) are reviewed in this paper. The studies are based on ocean inverse modeling techniques that derive impact estimates solely from the geoid error budgets of forthcoming space gravity missions. Despite some differences in the assumptions made, the inverse modeling calculations all point to significant improvements in estimates of oceanic fluxes. These improvements, measured in terms of reductions of uncertainties, are expected to be as large as a factor of 2. New developments in autonomous ocean observing systems will complement the developments expected from space gravity missions. The synergies of in situ and satellite observing systems are considered in the conclusion of this paper. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

带射流冲击的短扰流柱排内流场的实验研究

用五孔针对带射流冲击的单排短扰流柱内的流场作了详细的测量,得到并分析了带射流冲击的短扰流柱排内的速度分布规律及流场内的漩涡分布.在实验中清楚地探测到流动在靠近扰流柱表面附近速度较大,在对称中心区域发现了一大片低速区,并有回流和漩涡产生.实验发现由于端壁效应和扰流柱表面的流动分离造成扰流柱排内有较强的漩涡流动,扰流柱根部有马蹄涡产生,扰流柱后尾迹区有湍流涡的发展,流道内侧向压力分布不均匀可形成通道涡.与无射流情况比较发现扰流柱表面分离点后移,尾迹区明显减小.     

空间双组元发动机离心式喷注器的喷注流场诊断技术研究

对空间双组元发动机核心部件喷注器的喷雾流场可视化诊断技术开展了研究,有效识别了传统分析手段难以发现的雾化场缺陷,对发动机工作特性进行早期诊断,实现故障预防和设计优化.离心式喷注器的雾化喷注流场包含了大量的数据信息,可以通过高速摄影和图像分析进行数据挖掘分析.通过均值图像和余弦相似性计算对喷注流场的空间分布结构进行诊断,...     

惯性加速度计与气压高度计之随机误差模型的辨识与估计

 本文根据为某科学实验飞机设计最优气压/无线电/惯性混合高度系统的需要,利用机载数据采集系统,对惯性平台上的垂直加速度计以及在典型进场飞行条件下之气压高度计的随机误差模型进行了辨识与估计。应用时间序列分析方法,最优地估计了有关随机误差源的ARIMA模型。     

二维激光多普勒测速系统用于测量湍流分离流动

 为解决具有回流区的高湍流度分离流动的二维测量问题,研制了一种偏振分离型二维激光测速系统;测量了非对称阶跃扩张管道中湍流分离区的平均速度向量分布;得到了回流中心位置和回流区长度等参数;部分实验结果同数值模拟结果作了比较。     

Experimental Evaluation of Passive Microwave Velocity/Altitude Sensing

Experiments were conducted to determine the feasibility of using a passive microwave sensor of velocity/altitude ratio (V/H) as the basis for an aircraft navigation system. This sensor, combined with a radar altimeter, yields the velocity information needed for navigation. Airborne measurements were made with a two-beam X-band radiometer in a C-47 test aircraft. Radiometer signals and auxiliary information were recorded on magnetic tape. Ground-based data processing provided a comparison of radiometer-derived V/H measurements with those derived from independent sensors. Good results (fluctuating errors comparable to experimental uncertainties) were obtained over green farmland, urban areas, rice paddies, and certain desert areas; marginal results were obtained over other deserts and winter farmland. It was concluded that a microwave V/H sensor is feasible as the basis for a navigation system at low altitude over favorable terrains.     

A long-range laser velocimeter

A long-range laser velocimeter (LV) developed for remote operation from within the flow fields of large wind tunnels is described. Emphasis is placed on improvements in optical hardware as well as additions to data acquisition and processing techniques. The method used for data reduction of photon resolved signals is outlined in detail, and measurement accuracy is discussed. To study the performance of the LV and verify the measurement accuracy, laboratory measurements were made in the flow field of a 10-cm-diameter, 30-m/s axisymmetric jet. The measured velocity and turbulence intensity surveys are compared with measurements made with a hot-wire anemometer. Additionally, the LV was used during the flow calibration of the 80-ft×120-ft wind tunnel to measure the test-section boundary layer thickness at the maximum wind tunnel speed of 51.5 m/s. The requirements and techniques used to seed the flow are discussed, and boundary-layer surveys of mean velocity and turbulence intensity of the streamwise component and the component normal to the surface are presented. The streamwise component of mean velocity is compared with data obtained with a total pressure rake     

圆自由射流多尺度涡结构迁移特性的实验研究

在流场背景湍流度比较大或流场中涡结构的尺度范围比较宽的情况下，为了研究湍流场中不同尺度涡结构的迁移速度，用IFA300双通道恒温热线风速计和两个热线探针测量圆自由射流中心线上距离一定的空间两点同一时刻的流向速度分量，用子波分析提取了每一个探针输出的不同尺度的脉动速度信号，计算了两个探针输出的同一尺度脉动速度信号的互相关函数，利用互相关函数达到最大值对应的延迟时间研究了湍流多尺度涡结构的迁移特性。实验结果表明：不同尺度涡结构具有不同的迁移速度，小尺度涡的迁移速度较大，大尺度涡的迁移速度较小。其中，一部分尺度的涡结构是湍流中的主要结构，该尺度涡结构对湍流的贡献也是主要的，其迁移速度与实验测得的湍流平均速度较为接近。     

Virtis: An Imaging Spectrometer for the Rosetta Mission

The VIRTIS (Visual IR Thermal Imaging Spectrometer) experiment has been one of the most successful experiments built in Europe for Planetary Exploration. VIRTIS, developed in cooperation among Italy, France and Germany, has been already selected as a key experiment for 3 planetary missions: the ESA-Rosetta and Venus Express and NASA-Dawn. VIRTIS on board Rosetta and Venus Express are already producing high quality data: as far as Rosetta is concerned, the Earth-Moon system has been successfully observed during the Earth Swing-By manouver (March 2005) and furthermore, VIRTIS will collect data when Rosetta flies by Mars in February 2007 at a distance of about 200 kilometres from the planet. Data from the Rosetta mission will result in a comparison – using the same combination of sophisticated experiments – of targets that are poorly differentiated and are representative of the composition of different environment of the primordial solar system. Comets and asteroids, in fact, are in close relationship with the planetesimals, which formed from the solar nebula 4.6 billion years ago. The Rosetta mission payload is designed to obtain this information combining in situ analysis of comet material, obtained by the small lander Philae, and by a long lasting and detailed remote sensing of the comet, obtained by instrument on board the orbiting Spacecraft. The combination of remote sensing and in situ measurements will increase the scientific return of the mission. In fact, the “in situ” measurements will provide “ground-truth” for the remote sensing information, and, in turn, the locally collected data will be interpreted in the appropriate context provided by the remote sensing investigation. VIRTIS is part of the scientific payload of the Rosetta Orbiter and will detect and characterise the evolution of specific signatures – such as the typical spectral bands of minerals and molecules – arising from surface components and from materials dispersed in the coma. The identification of spectral features is a primary goal of the Rosetta mission as it will allow identification of the nature of the main constituent of the comets. Moreover, the surface thermal evolution during comet approach to sun will be also studied.     

离心叶轮出口与无叶扩压器内部流动特性的DPIV实验研究

在叶轮转速n＝1500rpm对应的设计工况下,利用两维数字式粒子图像速度场仪(DPIV)对风机模型从叶轮出口至无叶扩压器区域内部流动状态进行整场测量,在"锁相"状态下获得沿扩压器宽度方向上三个径向面的瞬态速度场、涡量场的分布,并进一步对时均流场的流动特性进行全面讨论.测量结果表明:设计工况下,叶轮出口流动呈现典型的"射流-尾迹"流动结构,其对无叶扩压器内部流动状态具有深刻的影响.旋涡由叶轮叶片表面边界层的粘性切应力产生,并随流动被输运至下游无叶扩压器,然后随着流动的均匀化而逐渐消失.涡量的分布及变化反映了无叶扩压器内部流体相互掺混和能量传递、重新分布从而达到均匀化的过程.随着半径的增加,尽管无叶扩压器内流动在圆周方向亦逐渐趋于均匀化,但沿宽度方向的差距未得到改善,这将导致沿轴向α不变原则设计的叶片扩压器的二元叶片无法避免冲击损失.     

基于PaSR模型的低旋流燃烧大涡模拟

为了深入理解低旋流流场特征和燃烧稳定性,基于OpenFOAM平台,采用动态k方程模型和有限速率PaSR模型对甲烷/空气预混低旋流燃烧进行了大涡模拟,研究了气流入口速度、当量比和压力等流场参数对流场结构和燃烧非稳态特性的影响,分析了流场大尺度结构与火焰相互作用。结果表明,流场结构和火焰抬升高度受入口速度影响较小,流场和火焰形态能够保持自相似性;随着当量比和压力提高,流场扩张性增强并在燃烧区下游产生回流区,火焰稳定不依赖回流区,根部火焰锋面形状由U形转变为W形,火焰抬升高度降低。火焰锋面稳定在剪切层,剪切层产生的周期性有序涡结构引起当地流场速度脉动和火焰表面褶皱,反映了流场非稳态特性;通过剪切层监测点瞬时轴向速度分析,涡结构特征频率随速度增大而提高,由250Hz提高至300Hz,随当量比和压力提高而降低,由250Hz降低至125Hz。     

横向气流中液体圆柱射流的破碎特性和表面波现象

采用高速摄像仪对横向气流场中的圆形液体射流的圆柱破碎过程(低Weber数)进行了实验研究.实验采用直射式喷嘴,喷孔直径为0.3mm和0.5mm,喷嘴长径比均为40.实验工质采用水.Weber数为1.7~7,液/气动量通量比为3.4~83.实验观察了表面波现象及射流破碎形成的液滴的尺寸及其速度.观测发现,表面波波长随着气流Weber数的对数的增加而线性减小.破碎后形成的液滴直径 d_p/d₀与Weber数的对数成正比.液滴的初始x方向速度与y方向速度大小与液滴直径无关.在实验范围内,液滴y方向速度均不随Weber数和液/气动量通量比的变化,约为初始射流速度的0.94倍;而液滴x方向速度约为0.085倍的气流速度.对表面波和破碎后形成的液滴尺寸及速度的研究有助于构建更精确的初始雾化模型.      

The IMF pile-up regions near the Earth and Venus: lessons for the solar wind - Mars interaction

The Mars Global Surveyor mission has revealed that localized crustal paleomagnetic anomalies are a common feature of the Southern Hemisphere of Mars. The magnetometer measured small-scale magnetic fields associated with many individual magnetic anomalies have magnitudes ranging from hundreds to thousands nT at altitude above 120 km. That makes Mars globally different from both Venus and Earth. The data collected by Lunar Prospector near the Moon were interpreted as evidence that above regions of inferred strong surface magnetic fields on the Moon the SW flow is deflected, and a small-scale mini-magnetosphere exists under some circumstances. With a factor of 100 stronger magnetic fields at Mars and a lower SW dynamic pressure, those conditions offer the opportunity for a larger size of small `magnetospheres' which can be formed by the crustal magnetic fields. Outside the regions of the magnetic anomalies, the SW/Mars interaction is Venus-like. Thus, at Mars the distinguishing feature of the magnetic field pile-up boundary most likely varies from Venus-like to Earth-like above the crustal magnetic field regions. The observational data regarding the IMF pile-up regions near Venus and the Earth are initially reviewed. As long as the SW/Mars interaction remains like that at Venus, the IMF penetrates deep into the Martian ionosphere under the `overpressure' conditions. Results of numerical simulations and theoretical expectations regarding the temporal evolution of the IMF inside the Venus ionosphere and appearance of superthermal electrons are also reviewed and assessed.     

中心突扩燃烧室PIV实验研究

利用PIV技术对两种不同尺寸的中心突扩燃烧室在不同入口速度条件下的冷态流场进行了实验研究,测量并分析了流场结构与来流速度、突扩比、喷管收缩段等因素的关系。实验结果表明利用PIV技术能较好地获得高速条件下燃烧室二维速度场;对于不同突扩比的燃烧室,突扩面后的流场结构类似,但回流区的最大负速度与入口速度的比例关系不同;在喷管人口处,流场在此处重新形成旋涡,其直径较大,但强度相对较弱。