Relative occurrence rate and geoeffectiveness of large-scale types of the solar wind

We investigate the relative occurrence rate for various types of the solar wind and their geoeffectiveness for magnetic storms with Dst < —50 nT. Both integrated effect for the entire time 1976–2000 and variations during this period of 2.5 cycles of solar activity are studied As raw data for the analysis we have used the catalog of large-scale types of the solar wind for the period 1976-2000 (see ftp://ftp.iki.rssi.ru/omni/) created by us with the use of the OMNI database (http://omni.web.gsgc.nasa.gov) [1] and described in detail in [2]. The average annual numbers of different type of events are as follows: 124 ±81 for the heliospheric current sheet (HCS), 8 ±6 for magnetic clouds (MC), 99 ±38 for Ejecta, 46 ±19 for Sheath before Ejecta, 6 ±5 for Sheath before MC, and 63 ±15 for CIR. The measurements that allowed one to determine a source in the solar wind were available only for 58% of moderate and strong magnetic storms (with index Dst < —50 nT) during the period 1976–2000. Magnetic clouds (MC) are shown to be the most geoeffective (~61%). The CIR events and Ejecta with Sheath region are three times less geoeffective (~20–21 %). Variations of occurrence rate and geoeffectiveness of various types of the solar wind in the solar cycle are discussed.     

Spacecraft attitude maneuver using two single-gimbal control moment gyros

In this paper, arbitrary rest-to-rest attitude maneuver problems for a satellite using two single-gimbal control moment gyros (2SGCMGs) are considered. Although single-gimbal control moment gyros are configured in the same manner as the traditional pyramid-array CMG, only two CMGs are assumed to be available. Attitude maneuver problems are similar to problems involving two reaction wheels (RWs) from the viewpoint of the number of actuators. In other words, the problem treated herein is a kind of underactuated problem. Although 2SGCMGs can generate torques around all axes, they cannot generate torques around each axis independently. Therefore, control methods designed for a satellite using two reaction wheels cannot be applied to three-axis attitude maneuver problems for a satellite using 2SGCMGs. In this paper, for simplicity, maneuvers around the x- and z-axes are first considered, and then a maneuver around the y-axis due to the corning effect resulting from the maneuver around the x- and z-axes is considered. Since maneuvers around each axis are established by the proposed method, arbitrary attitude maneuvers can be achieved using 2SGCMGs. In addition, the maneuvering angles around the z- and x-axes, which are required in order to maneuver around the y-axis, are analytically determined, and the total time required for maneuvering around the y-axis is then analyzed numerically.     

Perturbation solutions for variable energy blast waves

The trajectory of and the flow field behind blast waves with time varying energy input is determined. Freeman's (1968) Lagrangean coordinate formulation is modified to include both the geometric factor, α, for plane, cylindrical and spherical shocks and also non-integer values of β, the energy input parameter, in a single computational algorithm. Numerical problems associated with vanishing density at the inner mass boundary or “piston face” are then examined and solved. Second order perturbation solutions about the solution for an infinite strength shock are then obtained in Sakurai's (1965) inverse shock Mach number expansion parameter for 0 β < α + 1. Tables and graphs of significant numerical coefficients are presented for comparison to, and extension of, results of other authors. Graphs of typical shock trajectories and flow field density, pressure and velocity variations are also presented and discussed.     

薄膜二次表面镜热控涂层的辐射物性分析

认识热控涂层的热辐射物性对航天器热控制设计具有重要指导作用。文章根据薄膜二次表面镜涂层的吸收与反射过程分析,建立模型方程,结合已有的太阳吸收比、红外发射率等表观数据,采用非线性参数最小二乘法获得了薄膜材料的吸收系数和反射率等辐射物性,并分析了厚度对热控涂层太阳吸收比和红外发射率的影响。研究结果表明,聚酰亚胺薄膜对太阳光的表面反射率为0.571,吸收系数为19.343 mm-1,对红外辐射的表面反射率为0.227,吸收系数为39.615mm-1;F46薄膜对太阳光的表面反射率为0.744,吸收系数为0.757mm-1,对红外辐射的表面反射率为0.111,吸收系数为9.240mm-1。     

Orbit prediction for IRAS using vector and analytic techniques

This paper describes the techniques of a vector approach to the solution of the differential equations of motion of a near-Earth satellite. The method provides a good stable foundation for developing the orbital elements, thus allowing an analytic approach to be used in subsidiary algorithms. The mathematical concepts used in these algorithms are explained, and equations are developed for calculating Earth and Moon eclipses, radiation zone crossings, atmospheric density effects, solar cell decay, look angles and a geographical ephemeris. Results are presented for the IRAS satellite, and show that prediction errors of less than $\text{1}\text{1}\text{2}$ sec over one week or errors of less than 15 sec over $\text{3}\text{1}\text{2}$ months are possible.     

熔融沉积成型连续碳纤维增强尼龙蜂窝芯材的压缩特性

采用熔融沉积成型方法成形了连续碳纤维增强尼龙复合材料蜂窝芯材,并对不同测试方向的静态单轴压缩特性进行了表征分析,着重关注不同测试方向熔融沉积成形蜂窝芯材平面静态压缩破碎行为和能量吸收行为,并与纯聚合物基体进行对比。结果表明:X_1方向的压缩平台区域的力-位移曲线更加平滑稳定,且载荷值稍高于X_2方向,因此X_1方向更适用于能量吸收应用;此外,连续纤维的增强作用可使蜂窝芯材的平台载荷值得到明显提升。研究结果为连续纤维增强聚合物复合材料的空间增材制造提供理论基础。     

Carbon dioxide removal system for closed loop atmosphere revitalization,candidate sorbents screening and test results

Due to the difficulty and expense it costs to resupply manned-spacecraft habitats, a goal is to create a closed loop atmosphere revitalization system, in which precious commodities such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water are continuously recycled. Our aim is to test other sorbents for their capacity for future spacecraft missions, such as on the Orion spacecraft, or possibly lunar or Mars mission habitats to see if they would be better than the zeolite sorbents on the 4-bed molecular sieve. Some of the materials being tested are currently used for other industry applications. Studying these sorbents for their specific spacecraft application is different from that for applications on earth because in space, there are certain power, mass, and volume limitations that are not as critical on Earth. In manned-spaceflight missions, the sorbents are exposed to a much lower volume fraction of CO₂ (0.6% volume CO₂) than on Earth.LiLSX was tested for its CO₂ capacity in an atmosphere like that of the ISS. Breakthrough tests were run to establish the capacities of these materials at a partial pressure of CO₂ that is seen on the ISS. This paper discusses experimental results from benchmark materials, such as results previously obtained from tests on Grade 522, and the forementioned candidate materials for the Carbon Dioxide Removal Assembly (CDRA) system.     

载人航天器AIT中心微生物分布特征分析

为更好地控制载人航天器中的微生物水平,指导未来航天器研制中微生物控制设计,文章采用撞击法对3个载人航天器AIT中心的空气菌落数量和菌种分布特征进行了分析。厂房菌落数比较结果显示:北京AIT中心的细菌水平显著高于其他地区AIT （P<0.05）,天津AIT中心的真菌水平显著高于其他地区AIT （P<0.05）,酒泉AIT中心的总菌数在3个地区中最少（P<0.05）。厂房菌种类别比较结果显示:北京AIT中心的优势细菌为微球菌属、葡萄球菌属等,优势真菌为白假丝酵母菌;天津AIT中心的优势细菌为芽胞杆菌属,优势真菌为曲霉属和青霉属等;酒泉AIT中心的优势细菌为芽胞杆菌属、葡萄球菌属等,优势真菌为曲霉属和球毛壳霉等。本研究表明:各AIT中心的空气微生物分布具有明显的地区差异,这不仅与不同AIT中心所在地的气候特征和厂房设计有关,还受到人员管理因素的影响。文章最后为我国空间站AIT中心的微生物控制设计提出了一些建议。     

Determination of the Turbulent Diffusion Coefficient in the Plasma Sheet Using the Project INTERBALL Data

The results of an analysis of velocity fluctuations in the plasma sheet of the Earth's magnetotail measured onboard INTERBALL Tail Probe satellite are presented. The hodographs of the velocity in directions (Y, Z) and correlation functions are presented for a number of passages when the satellite was in the plasma sheet for a long time. The turbulent diffusion coefficients are calculated. A comparison of the obtained diffusion coefficients with those predicted theoretically in [1] is carried out. It is shown that the results of observations confirm theoretical predictions.     

The contest for leadership in East Asia: Japanese and Chinese approaches to outer space

Japan and China, as two advanced spacefaring nations in Asia-Pacific region, are often referred to as rivals in space. China's successful manned space launch program in 2003 and ASAT test in 2007 were considered as turning points which potentially introduces a “space race in Asia”. This article argues that there are three defining arenas in a space race: competition for prestige or soft power, competition over military capability or hard power, and competition of international services or public goods. It analyzes the objectives, norms and logics of space policy in Japan and China, and argues that these two countries have quite different thinking over what to do in space, explaining that they are playing different games in the first two arenas. However, Japan and China are competing for leadership and influence over the region. APRSAF and APSCO, two similar regional space organizations, are the vehicles for this competition. It concludes that there is a space race only in the third arena as a competition for leadership in Asia.     

Dynamics and control of variable-geometry truss structures

Variable-geometry truss structures are likely to be used extensively in the future for in-orbit space construction. This paper considers dynamics formulation and vibration control of such structures. The truss system is modelled as a collection of sub-structures consisting of truss booms, prismatic actuator elements, and in some cases a manipulator at the end. Each truss boom is treated as a separate ‘link’ and its flexibility is modelled using the finite element method. Equations of motion for individual sub-structures are obtained which are then assembled. The non-working constraint forces are eliminated to obtain the equations governing the constrained dynamics of the entire system. For vibration control, the singular perturbation method is employed to construct two reduced-order models, for quasi-static motion and for modal co-ordinates, respectively. Computed torque with PD control is applied to maintain the quasi-static motion, while an optimal LQR method is used for vibration control. Typical simulation results are presented for the planar case.     

Small total dose measurement system for SDS-1

The Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) uses monitors on board satellites to measure and record in-flight data on ionization effects in space. A compact, total dose measurement system for the small satellite (SDS-1) was developed based on the previous system for measuring total ionizing dose effects. Especially, the sensor for SDS-1 is quite smaller than the sensor for SOHLA-1, which is presented in the last year. The sensor is 8 mm wide×3 mm high×19 mm long and weighs approximately 4 g with 500 mm its wire harness. Eight pin LCC RADFET and temperature sensor are arranged on it. Seven sensors are arranged on some components inside the SDS-1. One of the sensors is arranged on a printed board in advanced microprocessing in-ORBIT experiment equipment (AMI). The AMI demonstrate 320 MIPS microprocessor and DC–DC converter for space. The absorbed dose at the points where the sensors are arranged was evaluated before flight and will be compared with resulting flight data.     

智能天地一体化网络的卫星跟踪测控技术综述

随着卫星互联网和我国航天测控技术的不断进步,航天测控网络朝着智能化、一体化的方向发展,在自主测控、资源分配等方面进展良好。因此,建立智能天地一体化的航天测控网是我国航天未来发展的重要目标。针对智能航天测控网中的跟踪测轨、遥测和遥控三个方面,分别介绍了相关原理与技术。同时,结合CCSDS提出的空间数据链路标准协议详细介绍了TM、TC、AOS、Proximity-1以及USLP标准,分析了不同标准所使用的技术与实际应用。本文从数据链路层和物理层的角度介绍了智能航天测控系统的工作原理及技术要求,为我国智能天地一体化卫星测控通信网的研究提供参考并予以展望。     

The search for life on Europa: limiting environmental factors, potential habitats, and Earth analogues

The putative ocean of Europa has focused considerable attention on the potential habitats for life on Europa. By generally clement Earth standards, these Europan habitats are likely to be extreme environments. The objectives of this paper were to examine: (1) the limits for biological activity on Earth with respect to temperature, salinity, acidity, desiccation, radiation, pressure, and time; (2) potential habitats for life on Europa; and (3) Earth analogues and their limitations for Europa. Based on empirical evidence, the limits for biological activity on Earth are: (1) the temperature range is from 253 to 394 K; (2) the salinity range is a(H2O) = 0.6-1.0; (3) the desiccation range is from 60% to 100% relative humidity; (4) the acidity range is from pH 0 to 13; (5) microbes such as Deinococcus are roughly 4,000 times more resistant to ionizing radiation than humans; (6) the range for hydrostatic pressure is from 0 to 1,100 bars; and (7) the maximum time for organisms to survive in the dormant state may be as long as 250 million years. The potential habitats for life on Europa are the ice layer, the brine ocean, and the seafloor environment. The dual stresses of lethal radiation and low temperatures on or near the icy surface of Europa preclude the possibility of biological activity anywhere near the surface. Only at the base of the ice layer could one expect to find the suitable temperatures and liquid water that are necessary for life. An ice layer turnover time of 10 million years is probably rapid enough for preserving in the surface ice layers dormant life forms originating from the ocean. Model simulations demonstrate that hypothetical oceans could exist on Europa that are too cold for biological activity (T < 253 K). These simulations also demonstrate that salinities are high, which would restrict life to extreme halophiles. An acidic ocean (if present) could also potentially limit life. Pressure, per se, is unlikely to directly limit life on Europa. But indirectly, pressure plays an important role in controlling the chemical environments for life. Deep ocean basins such as the Mariana Trench are good analogues for the cold, high-pressure ocean of Europa. Many of the best terrestrial analogues for potential Europan habitats are in the Arctic and Antarctica. The six factors likely to be most important in defining the environments for life on Europa and the focus for future work are liquid water, energy, nutrients, low temperatures, salinity, and high pressures.     

Microbolometer in space: IASI and PICASSO-CENA

Microbolometers are infrared detectors of an emerging technology mainly developed in US and few other countries for few years. The main targets of these developments are low performing military and civilian applications like survey cameras.Applications in space are now arising thanks to the design simplification and the associated cost reduction allowed by this new technology.The paper describes two applications in development in SODERN:

• 1. an infrared camera for the Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer (IASI): this camera integrated in IASI is used to take pictures of the main instrument field of view and to correlate them with other instrument measurements;
• 2. an infrared radiometer for PICASSO-CENA based on the same camera design.

In both cases, the use of microbolometer detectors leads to very competitive designs in terms of volume, mass, power consumption and cost.     

Time and energy characteristics of UV flashes in the atmosphere: Data of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Universitetsky-Tatiana</Emphasis> satellite

Using a detector of near ultra-violet (UV) emission (wavelength range 300–400 nm) [1] onboard the Universitetsky-Tatiana satellite with an orbit height of 950 km and inclination of 81° we have detected and studied short UV flashes [2–5]. In this paper the observed UV flashes are classified according to the type of their time profiles, and the times of emission intensity rise and decay are investigated in every flash. Using the data on time profiles it turned out to be possible to estimate the flash energy in the atmosphere even in case of saturation of a signal measuring channel at the maximum of emission. The energy spectrum of observed flashes is estimated. Time and energy characteristics of the flashes are important for choosing a model of development of electric discharges in the upper atmosphere that are responsible for observed emission.     

Thermodynamics and dynamics of surface phases

The paper presents and discusses the set of field-equations for an interface between two immiscible, uncharged, unpolarized, non-elastic and non micro-polar fluids modelled as a geometrical surface S in arbitrary motion and with thermodynamic and dynamic properties. The crucial assumptions are those implied by a local formulation of the equilibrium thermodynamics of S. The set of equations derived comprises: integral and local forms of the surface balance-equation for a scalar or vectorial extensive property; continuity, normal and tangential momentum and energy equations; surface entropy production; linear phenomenological relations for irreversible surface diffusions and non-equilibrium exchanges of extensive properties between surface and volume phases. Momentum and energy conservation equations are formulated also in terms of a suitably defined surface total enthalpy. Available previous formulations are either not as complete or hold only in more particular cases. Whenever applicable, their results are compared with the present ones and commented upon.     

Missions to the asteroid anteros and the space of true anomalies

Three opportunities for missions to rendezvous ballistically with the Earth-crossing asteroid Anteros are studied to illustrate the requirements for a trip to a near-Earth minor planet. The rationale, sample payload, spacecraft requirements and trajectory characteristics of these opportunities are typical of a rendezvous mission to an accessible near-Earth object. Round trip ballistic trajectories to return small samples of the asteroid with launch dates between 1985 and 2000 are also presented. Contours of minimum total ΔV drawn in the space of launch and arrival true anomalies, given the designation Prime Rib curves, are introduced as a useful tool for mission design.     

Ensuring an acceptable reliability and safety level for a launch complex

Some key aspects and criteria tasks for ensuring an acceptable reliability and safety level for complex technical systems are discussed in the view of successful operation of a launch complex, at the stage of Launch Vehicle (LV) preparation. The standards and principles of adequate characteristics for launch site core technological systems are defined. The tasks for evaluation the probability of faultless operation for the systems, their reliability a posteriori, and safety barriers formation are described. The model of the pre-launch phase is presented as a random process, in the form of “simple Poisson flow”.