Status of the emerging technology of Stirling machines

The commercialization status of Stirling machines varies from established niche market products to potential products that are in early stages of development. In other words, we are talking about a typical emerging technology. Many organizations are actively pursuing product development based on Stirling machine technology. Stirling machines offer significant performance advantages, but many obstacles remain to be fully resolved, including cost and demonstrated reliability. This article describes the technology upon which Stirling machines are based. Several application areas are then explored, including hot air engines, remote power, solar thermal power, sensor cooling, refrigeration, cogeneration and air-independent propulsion     

Nonsteady behaviour of solar dynamic power systems with Stirling cycle for space stations

In the first part of this paper, a solar dynamic power system with a Stirling engine for space station application is described. Its unsteady behaviour is theoretically modelled and numerically simulated for four representative orbit configurations. The results are compared to that of a solar dynamic power module with a Brayton gas turbine.In the second part, it is shown that the complex nonsteady behaviour of solar dynamic power modules with either the Brayton cycle or Stirling cycle can be analysed in a simplified way with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes on the basis of parametrizations and simple energy balances.     

空间斯特林发电机热头结构设计及分析

空间斯特林发电机热头在工作中要承受严酷的高温高压的工况,为了保证其长寿命和高效换热等要求,需要对斯特林发电机热头的材料、结构等方面进行分析和优化设计。本文初步介绍了空间斯特林发电机热头结构设计的要求和准则,分析了热头结构设计的难点和关键点及解决途径。采用有限元分析方法,开展了斯特林发电样机热头的温度和压力综合应力分析和热头结构的优化设计。加工完成的热头结构的工作性能满足斯特林发电机样机的要求,初步验证了设计方法和途径的正确性。     

International trends in Stirling engine technology development:ISEC 1982-8

A brief survey is presented of trends in work reported at four International Stirling Engine Conferences held during the 1980s. The discussion covers international participation, publication sources and types, engine types, specialized engines, sponsoring institutions and observed trends     

Permanent-Magnet Linear Alternators Part 1: Fundamental Equations

Powered by free-piston Stirling engines, linear alternators are proposed for space power stations as well as for isolated domestic applications, automotive, and on-Earth solar power plants. As the literature on the subject is sparse and base-design oriented, we present the general equations for both three-phase and single-phase winding configurations having permanent-magnet field excitations.     

Closed cycle coolers for space applications

Single stage Stirling coolers providing refrigeration at around 80 K have been developed for space use and are now being produced commercially. Development work is now concentrating on multistage coolers for temperatures below 30 K. This paper describes results from a two stage cooler built at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory and preliminary tests on a closed cycle 4 K cooler.     

Power and energy developments at Windfarm

Low-cost practical solutions to problems of less-developed countries that are being investigated at Windfarm Laboratory on Martha's Vineyard in Massachusetts, USA, are described. These include prototype 1-kW Stirling engines, a solar cooker, and a high-head pump that can be paddlewheel or hand-crank driven     

Engine-driven generators for deep space probes

Summarizes important developments relating to power for deep space missions. The important alternatives to thermocouples for converting radioisotope heat into electric power are Stirling engines, alkali-metal thermal-to-electric converters (AMTEC), thermionic converters, and thermo-photovoltaic converters. The operating principles and limitations of these converters are described.     

The use of closed cycle coolers on space based observatories

Many proposed space based observations will rely on the use of closed cycle and passive cooling systems to provide the thermal environment for high sensitivity. The use of closed cycle mechanical coolers on space telescopes poses particular integration problems; some of these difficulties are discussed in this paper.One of the major problems envisaged is that of exported vibration. This problem, and that of the heat sinking required, can be alleviated by siting the compressors of the Stirling cycle precooler further from the displacer unit. The effect of the separation between the compressors and the displacer on the performance of the Stirling cycle precooler has been measured. Increasing the separation from 170 mm to 565 mm decreases the cooling power at 25 K from 220 mW to 180 mW. In most applications this would be acceptable.The pre-cooler provides cooling at a single point. In situations where refrigeration of extended objects (e.g. telescope mirrors) is required, some distribution method has to be found. A scheme for achieving this is presented together with preliminary calculations on such a system.Temperatures in the region of 2.5 to 4K are required to meet the requirements for long wavelength detectors. We have demonstrated how these temperatures can be achieved in a continuously operating closed cycle cooler that has been engineered for space applications. This cooler consists of a two-stage Stirling cycle precooling a closed cycle Joule-Thomson (JT) stage. Temperatures in the region of 4K are achieved by the use of helium-4 in the JT system. The lighter isotope of helium is used to obtain temperatures down to 2.5 K. Under no-load conditions the precooler reaches a base temperature of 11.3K. The JT system achieves 4.3 K with a 10 mW heat load and 2.5 K with a heat load of over 3 mW. The input power to the cooler is approximately 126 W.The temperature stability of the cooler at low temperatures is important to keep detector drift to a minimum. The temperature of the JT stage has been measured in uncontrolled laboratory conditions and found to vary by only 30 mK over a seventy hour period. The pre-cooler temperature varied by approximately 0.6 K during these measurements.     

Pulse tube refrigerators

Interest in the pulse tube comes from its potential for high reliability and low level of induced vibration.A numerical model has been developed to provide a tool for practical design. It has been successfully validated against the experimental results obtained with a single stage double inlet pulse tube which has achieved a temperature of 28 K at a frequency of a few Hz.Further developments have demonstrated the capability of operating a pulse tube at higher frequencies in association with a Stirling pressure oscillator.Current projects include coaxial geometry for miniature pulse tubes with linear resonant pressure oscillators. A 4K multistaged pulse tube is also in development.     

High efficiency dynamic radioisotope power systems for spaceexploration-a status report

Background on the space exploration program is discussed, and the currently identified NASA exploration missions are contrasted with the missions that were being planned a year ago. Developments in high-efficiency dynamic radioisotope power systems are discussed: and Brayton and Stirling power conversion cycles are compared for the missions planned for the next decade. Issues related to the use of high-efficiency radioisotope (HER) power systems are identified. It is noted that HER power systems are approximately three times as efficient as current radioisotope thermoelectric generators(RTGs) and are therefore significantly cheaper. Additionally, the world's supply of ²³⁸Pu is extremely limited. Currently discussed missions would cut deeply into this supply if powered by RTGs     

Deep space travel energy sources

Exploration of the planets beyond Mars and their surroundings is already planned. Astronomy researchers are citing important information that can be obtained with instrumented spacecraft that fly beyond the planets of our solar system. Spacecraft flying these missions need power for performing their functions and communicating with Earth stations. Sunlight in these zones is so weak that alternative energy sources are needed. An alternative power source for deep-space missions is radioisotope heated energy converters.. The choice of heat-to-electric power conversion is narrowing to: 1) the Stirling engine; and 2) a combined cycle with thermionic and alkali-metal thermoelectric (AMTEC) heat-to-electricity conversion. For propulsion into deep space, a nuclear-reactor-heated AMTEC energy converter that powers ion engines can become the best alternative to hoisting tons of rockets into Earth orbit.     

受限共轴射流的湍流混合过程数值模拟

本文以下Ｓｔｉｒｌｉｎｇ发动机引射管设计为研究对象，对亚声速受限共轴射流中的两种气体混合过程，用数值模拟方法求解了轴对称雷诺平均Ｎ－Ｓ方程组。提出的一种改进的显式有限体积法，包括基于网格角点的具有高分辨的中心／迎风ＱＵＩＣＫ算法，四阶人工耗散、局部时间步长和隐式余数光滑技术的应用。为加速收敛，采用一种类似于总焓阻尼的方法，引入质量流量阻尼和气流中化学组份质量分数阻尼，以快速获得足够近似的解，适合工     

AFRL Cryogenic Technology Development Programs

This is an overview of the cryogenic refrigerator and cryogenic integration programs in development and characterization under the Cryogenic Technologies Group, Space Vehicles Directorate of the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL). The vision statement for the Air Force Research Laboratory Cryogenic Technologies Group is to support the space community as the center of excellence for developing and transitioning space cryogenic thermal management technologies. The primary customers for the AFRL cryogenic technology development programs are Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO), the USAF SBIRS (space based infrared) Low program office, and DoD space surveillance programs. This describes a variety of Stirling, pulse tube, Reverse Brayton, Joule-Thomson, and Sorption cycle cryocoolers currently under development to meet current and future Air Force and DoD requirements. The AFRL customer single stage cooling requirements at 10 K, 35 K, 60 K, 150 K, and multi-stage cooling requirements at 35/60 K are addressed. In order to meet these various requirements, the AFRL Cryogenic Technologies Group is pursuing various strategic cryocooler and cryogenic integration options. The Air Force Research Laboratory is also developing several advanced cryogenic integration technologies that will result in the reduction in current cryogenic system integration penalties and design time. These technologies include the continued development of the cryogenic systems integration model (CSIM), 60 K, and 100 K thermal storage units and heat pipes, cryogenic straps, thermal switches, and development of an integrated lightweight cryogenic bus (CRYOBUS).     

带有不确定因素的最优拦截制导律

本文从微分对策观点出发,利用极小极大原理讨论了带有不确定因素的最优拦截制导律。在选择特定的过渡时间时,最优拦截制导律具有综合形式。仍由二部分组成:一部分是变系数比例导航,另一部分是与导弹加速度有关的修正项。     

热障涂层厚度涡流检测技术研究

利用涡流检测技术,确定了热障涂层(TBCs)中各部分材料的电磁特性.根据TBCs结构特点及材料的电磁特性,建立了TBCs理论模型,进行了模拟试验,分析了影响厚度测量的影响因素.制作了不同结构的TBCs试样,进行了测量试验,取得了较为满意的结果,并得到了涡流检测TBCs厚度的校准试样要求.     

具有状态识别特征的引信用电磁拔销器

电磁拔销器可利用得失电原理实现引信的安全状态可恢复功能。为了使引信或安保机构能够简便获得电磁拔销器已完成解保程序或已恢复安全状态的信息,提出具有状态识别特征的引信用电磁拔销器,在目前使用的电磁拔销器结构的基础上增加了触发部件和信号输出部件,将其工作过程同步为信号输出部件通断的过程,使引信或安保机构通过信号采集就可获得安全状态信息。结果表明:该电磁拔销器工作状态稳定,信号输出可靠,最小响应时间为3 ms。     

铸造凝固冷速对原位自生（TiW）C／Fe复合材料组织的影响

研究了不同的铸造凝固冷速对原位自生10vol%(TiW)C/Fe复合材料显微组织的影响。结果表明,在原位合成的10vol%(TiW)C/Fe复合材料中,(TiW)C相是唯一的第二相,均匀、弥散分布于基体中,其形态基本上呈块状,条状较少。在块状(TiW)C相中,Ti和W元素的分布是不均匀的,芯部富Ti,边缘富W。当冷速较快时,形成的第二相颗粒趋于等轴状,条状共晶组织消失,有利于基体耐磨性的提高;当冷速较慢时,第二相颗粒数量多,尺寸小,且随冷速的降低在该复合材料中形成了大量的共晶组织。适当提高冷却速度,有利于获得较理想的复合材料显微组织。     

单片机在船舶位置测控系统中的应用

介绍一种以AT89C55／51单片机为核心的主从机船舶位置控制系统。驾驶员在船长室通过键盘给定理想航向信号，选择航向传感器一电罗经测出实际航向信号，将这两个信号进行运算和处理，然后发出理想的舵偏转角信号给从机。从机安装在舵机所在现场，由精密电位器测出实际的航角信号，从机将其与理想的舵角信号进行比较，并发出控制步进电机转动的信号，从而系统快速可靠地实现船舶位置的串级控制。主从机之间的通信以RS-422标准实现。文中介绍了该系统的结构，详细分析系统原理并给出软件框图。     

沟槽表面双排孔顺逆组合对气膜冷却的影响

数值模拟研究了双排气膜孔顺逆组合形式对沟槽表面气膜冷却效率影响,孔间距与气膜孔直径之比为5,孔排间距与气膜孔直径之比为12,吹风比为0.3、0.8和1.4。结果表明,在吹风比较小时,沟槽对气膜有显著的导向作用,冷气在相邻的沟槽内部流动。当吹风比增大时,冷气喷到沟槽顶部,导向作用减弱。顺向射流的气膜贴近冷却表面,在低吹风比下气膜冷却效率较高。在高吹风比下,逆向射流覆盖更宽,气膜孔排间叠加效应明显。吹风比为0.3时,逆-逆组合的气膜冷却效率最低,面平均气膜冷却效率为0.07,相比于最高的顺-顺组合的0.13降低46%。当吹风比为0.8时,顺-顺、逆-顺、顺-逆组合的面平均气膜冷却效率相近,约为0.11,其中顺-逆组合气膜冷却效率分布更均匀。吹风比为1.4时,逆-逆组合的面平均气膜冷却效率最高,为0.13,相比于顺-顺组合提升116%。