Observing the earth radiation budget from satellites: Past,present, and a look to the future

Satellite measurements of the radiative exchange between the planet Earth and space have been the objective of many experiments since the beginning of the space age in the late 1950's. The on-going mission of the Earth Radiation Budget (ERB) experiments has been and will be to consider flight hardware, data handling and scientific analysis methods in a single design strategy. Research and development on observational data has produced an analysis model of errors associated with ERB measurement systems on polar satellites. Results show that the variability of reflected solar radiation from changing meteorology dominates measurement uncertainties. As an application, model calculations demonstrate that measurement requirements for the verification of climate models may be satisfied with observations from one polar satellite, provided we have information on diurnal variations of the radiation budget from the ERBE mission.     

Satellite-derived snow and ice cover in climate diagnostics studies

Satellite-derived estimates of snow and sea-ice area have been produced weekly on an operational basis for over a decade. This paper presents a synopsis of recent climate research and climate diagnostics studies using these data at the National Weather Service's Climate Analysis Center (CAC). Currently available satellite products are evaluated in light of these studies and a set of desired characteristics for future satellite products are discussed.     

Determination of the mean dynamic ocean topography model through combining multi-source gravity data and DTU15 MSS around China's coast

Mean dynamic ocean topography (or MDT) is closely related to ocean circulation and global climate change. It has important scientific significance and application value for the development and utilization of marine resources in China's coastal areas. Based on the terrain gravity, marine gravity, and SRTM 3?s data, an algorithm to reduce the problem of gravity data gaps between land and sea is proposed. A consistent land-sea gravity model is established based on point-mass fusion method. Then geoid model, which accuracy was estimated to be 8.5?cm through the verification of 348 GNSS/level data from the coastal provinces, of China's coastal areas was calculated through remove-restore technique. Connecting the above geoid model with DTU15 MSS model to establish a MDT model in China's coastal areas using the direct method in space domain. The effect of gravity field model, dominant factors of sea surface topography, and low pass filter are analyzed. Taking Bohai Sea and Yellow Sea as an example, and comparing MDT with the two international models CNES_2013_MDT and DTU15_MDT. The results show that the MDT has the potential to construct a vertical datum of the ocean and carry out related scientific research and application.     

What is climate?

The present meaning of the word $\text{climate}$ evolved simultaneously with the formulation of research priorities which are regarded as necessary to explore the causes and, consequences of observed environmental changes. Climate can be understood in its widest sense as the totallity of influences to which the biosphere is exposed. Of primary interest are changes of these environmental conditions which are caused by the variability of the $\text{climate system}$. This expression is used in the sense of a physical system in which energy conversions take place, and which is forced, e.g. by the solar input, geologic events and man's activity. The climate system is composed of five major subsystems: atmosphere, hydrosphere, land surfaces, cryosphere and biosphere. These subsystems interact in a complex non-linear manner in different time scales. Major climate determining processes are outlined and the research priorities are discussed, which are regarded essential to investigate them and their interactions.     

Models for estimating daily photosynthetically active radiation in oceanic and mediterranean climates and their improvement by site adaptation techniques

In this work Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) in oceanic and mediterranean climates is modeled. Twenty-two different models have been developed and tested: eleven Multilinear Regression (MR) models and eleven Artificial Neuron Network (ANN) models, using combinations of variables such as Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI), Global Extraterrestrial Irradiance (G₀), Temperature (T) and Relative Humidity (RH). Data provided by Satellite Application Facility on Climate Monitoring (CM SAF) are used to develop and train the models, while the models have been validated using field data from four stations located in Spain, covering the different study climates.According to the results, zones with different climate conditions need different models, both for the case of MR and ANN. The results show the need of including the GHI in all models in order to obtain accurate estimates; in fact, the presence of more variables only improves slightly the results in mediterranean climate, while in oceanic climate no improvement is observed.On the other hand, comparing MR and ANN models, ANN models did not show better results than those of MR models in no one of the cases studied. Regarding the climate, both types of models are clearly better for the mediterranean case than for the oceanic one. In order to improve the performance of the model for oceanic climate a correction based on the site adaptation technique was carried out. The good results obtained by this technique fully justify its use.The best proposed models provide better performance than other models which are restricted to certain locations. Besides, the clustering technique based on the PAR variable, used in this work, allows obtaining useful models for a whole region. Finally, another advantage of this methodology is that there is no need of ground measurements for its development, except for the site adaptation technique.     

全球海表流场多尺度结构观测卫星计划

全球海表流场多尺度结构观测卫星计划（Ocean Surface Current multiscale Observation Mission, OSCOM）首次提出海表流场、海面风场和海浪谱（简称 “流–风–浪”）一体化探测的多普勒散射计（Doppler Scatterometer, DOPS）测量原理和系统体制。OSCOM采用Ka-Ku双频多波束圆锥扫描体制的真实孔径雷达,将实现超过1000 km观测刈幅、公里级分辨率的“流–风–浪”一体化卫星直接观测。OSCOM将突破海洋亚中尺度非平衡态动力学、海洋多尺度相互作用、海气耦合的研究瓶颈,支撑实现海洋系统科学、气候变化等理论研究的重大突破。未来,应用OSCOM海表流速观测的模式改进,将奠定海洋非平衡态过程数值模拟、同化和预报的动力学基础,实现海洋和海气耦合模式的重大改进。通过与多源数据融合,OSCOM海流观测的应用将为海洋生物地球化学循环、碳收支研究和国家重大任务提供支撑。OSCOM科学卫星的实施对于我国地球系统科学和卫星对地观测重大应用的突破有至关重要的意义,有望带动我国应用卫星的发展从追赶、并行走向领跑。      

三阶段法与活动周期图

对二种离散系统仿真建模方法，三阶段法和活动周期图进行系统的介绍，分析与讨论，指出它们的特点，应用情况及最新发展，三阶段法是分析研究仿真问题的一种世界观，具体反映在仿真软件及模型的程序结构，活动周期图往往与三阶段法一道使用，用于描述系统内实体的逻辑流程，这两种方法的特点使它们成为欧洲，尤其是英国最重要的离散系统仿真建模方法。     

On the derivation of radiation budget parameters at the surface from satellite measurements

The modelling of climate and circulation processes requires more than ever before accurate data on the energy exchange between the earth's surface and the atmosphere. Accuracies are estimated to range between 2–20 Wm^?2 for global and monthly averages. The four components of the radiation budget at ground can still not at all be derived with sufficient accuracy from satellite measurements and from correlative data of conventional surface based origin. In this paper are discussed the general possibilities. Basic research is still required to establish a reliable error budget, and ground truth is essential.     

Climate studies from satellite observations: Special problems in the verification of earth radiation balance,cloud climatology,and related climate experiments

A body of techniques that have been developed and planned for use during the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE), the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP), and related climate experiments of the 1980's are reviewed. Validation and verification methods must apply for $\text{systems}$ of satellites. They include: (1) use of a normalization or intercalibration satellite, (2) special intensive observation areas located over ground-truth sites, and (3) monitoring of sun and earth by several satellites and/or several instruments at the same time. Since each climate application area has a hierarchy of user communities, validation techniques vary from very detailed methods to those that simply assure high relative accuracy in detecting space and time variations for climate studies. It is shown that climate experiments generally require more emphasis on long-term stability and internal consistency of satellite data sets than high absolute accuracy.     

星座备份策略研究进展

针对星座卫星在轨运行时因操作或故障导致星座服务性能下降的现象，综述了星座备份策略研究的进展。首先，概述了导航星座、通信星座的基本情况和备份现状，归纳出不同星座的备份策略。其次，重点阐述了3种不同的星座备份策略模式，即在轨备份、停泊轨道备份及地面备份，给出了3种备份策略模式的特点。在此基础上，分别从卫星故障模式、卫星可靠性、卫星可用性、星座状态概率和星座系统可用性5个方面梳理了国内外星座备份策略关键因素的研究进展。再次，综述了目前星座备份策略分析的主要模型和方法，包括Petri网、马尔可夫链以及存储论。最后，对未来星座备份策略研究的发展方向进行了展望。     

基于方向自适应菱形搜索的运动估计算法

基于对运动矢量分布特性的研究,提出了一种基于方向自适应菱形搜索的运动估计算法.该算法对搜索起始点进行预测;设置"双阈值",针对匹配块提前中止搜索;并根据运动特征,自适应地选择小菱形模板和4种新型的方向自适应菱形模板,具有强烈的搜索方向性.实验结果证明,该算法不仅大幅度地减少了平均搜索点数,而且在一定程度上提高了重建图像的信噪比,其搜索速度和精度均优于传统的快速运动估计算法.      

Science strategy for human exploration of Mars.

The scientific objectives of Mars exploration can be framed within the overarching theme of exploring Mars as another home for life, both for evidence of past or present life on Mars, and as a potential future home for human life. The two major areas of research within this theme are: 1) determining the relationship between planetary evolution, climate change, and life, and 2) determining the habitability of Mars. Within this framework, this paper discusses the exploration objectives for exobiology, climatology and atmospheric science, geology, and martian resource assessment. Human exploration will proceed in four major phases: 1) Precursor missions which will obtain environmental knowledge necessary for human exploration, 2) Emplacement phase which includes the first few human landings where crews will explore the local area of the landing site; 3) Consolidation phase missions where a permanent base will be constructed and crews will be capable of detailed exploration over regional scales; 4) Utilization phase, in which a continuously occupied permanent Mars base exists and humans will be capable of detailed global exploration of the martian surface. The phases of exploration differ primarily in the range and capabilities of human mobility. In the emplacement phase, an unpressurized rover, similar to the Apollo lunar rover, will be used and will have a range of a few tens of kilometers. In the Consolidation phase, mobility will be via a pressurized all-terrain vehicle capable of expeditions from the base site of several weeks duration. In the Utilization phase, humans will be capable of several months long expeditions to any point on the surface of Mars using a suborbital rocket equipped with habitat, lab, and return vehicle. Because of human mobility limitations, it is important to extend the range and duration of exploration in all phases by using teleoperated rover vehicles. Site selection for human missions to Mars must consider the multi-decade time frame of these four phases. We suggest that operations in the first two phases be focused in the regional area containing the Coprates Quadrangle and adjacent areas.     

Deriving a sea surface temperature record suitable for climate change research from the along-track scanning radiometers

We describe the approach to be adopted for a major new initiative to derive a homogeneous record of sea surface temperature for 1991–2007 from the observations of the series of three along-track scanning radiometers (ATSRs). This initiative is called (A)RC: (Advanced) ATSR Re-analysis for Climate. The main objectives are to reduce regional biases in retrieved sea surface temperature (SST) to less than 0.1 K for all global oceans, while creating a very homogenous record that is stable in time to within 0.05 K decade⁻¹, with maximum independence of the record from existing analyses of SST used in climate change research. If these stringent targets are achieved, this record will enable significantly improved estimates of surface temperature trends and variability of sufficient quality to advance questions of climate change attribution, climate sensitivity and historical reconstruction of surface temperature changes. The approach includes development of new, consistent estimators for SST for each of the ATSRs, and detailed analysis of overlap periods. Novel aspects of the approach include generation of multiple versions of the record using alternative channel sets and cloud detection techniques, to assess for the first time the effect of such choices. There will be extensive effort in quality control, validation and analysis of the impact on climate SST data sets. Evidence for the plausibility of the 0.1 K target for systematic error is reviewed, as is the need for alternative cloud screening methods in this context.     

Empirical models of the thermosphere and requirements for improvements

The different types of variation in the thermosphere are briefly examined and the solar-activity effect is singled out for special attention. To this day, empirical models have made use of the decimetric solar flux F_10.7 as an index of the variable XUV radiation from the sun. To account for the change in the relative intensity of the different types of emissions in the course of the solar cycle, F_10.7 is made to perform double duty: The daily values are used to represent the day-to-day and “27-day” variations, while its averages over several solar rotations are used to represent the variations with the 11-year cycle. The availability of direct solar XUV data should eventually eliminate the need for such a make-shift procedure. Accuracy and continuity requirements of XUV intensity measurements are discussed and a strategy is outlined for sorting out the relevant features from the observational material and putting them to practical use in thermospheric modeling. It is suggested that future models of the diurnal and the geomagnetic variation use as a guide theoretical models which have achieved considerable success in qualitatively representing the observed phenomena.     

FY-3 Meteorological Satellites and the Applications

FY-3 is the second generation polar-orbiting meteorological satellite of China. The first satellite named FY-3A of this series was launched on 27 May 2008. The first operational satellite named FY-3C of this series was launched on 23 September, 2013. The new generation satellites are to provide three-dimensional, quantitative, multi-spectral global remote sensing data under all weather conditions, which will greatly help the operational numerical weather prediction, global climate change research, climate diagnostics and prediction, and natural disaster monitoring. They will also provide help for many other fields such as agriculture, forestry, oceanography and hydrology. With the abovementioned capability, the FY-3 satellites can make valuable contributions to improving weather forecasts, global natural-disaster and environmental monitoring.      

Teaching astronomy for pre-service elementary teachers: A comparison of methods

This study investigates the effect of text structure and “hands-on” methods in the acquisition of the concepts of moon phases and seasons for pre-service elementary teachers. The goal is to evaluate the most appropriate method for facilitating conceptual change. The presentation of two main misconceptions associated with each concept (moon phases and seasons) is tested. Sixty pre-service elementary teachers are divided into three same size experimental groups after a pre-test on their knowledge about astronomy: one group read a simple expository text that presents factual information about seasons and moon phases, another group read a refutation text that moreover presents explicitly two main and usual misconceptions about each concept and arguments to refute them; the last group participates to a refutation modelling activity by testing, for each concept, three hypothesis: the scientific explanation and the two common misconceptions. The hands-on method is used as a way to refute the pre-conceptions thanks to a collaborative activity in small groups.     

军机飞行员情境认知水平的实验研究

为研究目前航空工效研究领域中比较活跃的一个方向——情境认知问题,结合前人的研究成果设计了有关军机飞行员情境认知的实验和调查,并通过分析其情境认知的四个关键方面:扫视(注意)策略,工作负荷与任务难度的关系,工作负荷与情境认知的关系,经验与情境认知的关系,初步揭示了高级飞行员和飞行学员之间的情境认知差别.      

Effect of solar activity on the repetitiveness of some meteorological phenomena

In this paper we research the relationship between solar activity and the weather on Earth. This research is based on the assumption that every ejection of magnetic field energy and particles from the Sun (also known as Solar wind) has direct effects on the Earth’s weather. The impact of coronal holes and active regions on cold air advection (cold fronts, precipitation, and temperature decrease on the surface and higher layers) in the Belgrade region (Serbia) was analyzed. Some active regions and coronal holes appear to be in a geo-effective position nearly every 27 days, which is the duration of a solar rotation. A similar period of repetitiveness (27–29 days) of the passage of the cold front, and maximum and minimum temperatures measured at surface and at levels of 850 and 500 hPa were detected. We found that 10–12 days after Solar wind velocity starts significantly increasing, we could expect the passage of a cold front. After eight days, the maximum temperatures in the Belgrade region are measured, and it was found that their minimum values appear after 12–16 days. The maximum amount of precipitation occurs 14 days after Solar wind is observed. A recurring period of nearly 27 days of different phases of development for hurricanes Katrina, Rita and Wilma was found. This analysis confirmed that the intervals of time between two occurrences of some particular meteorological parameter correlate well with Solar wind and A index.     

Space observations of trace gases for climate studies

The paper considers the importance of trace gases in modulating the fluxes of solar and terrestrial radiation in the Earth's atmosphere, and the influence of these effects on the long-term climate. Present and future capabilities for observing and monitoring trace gases from spacecraft are surveyed.     

Procedure and methodologies for managing the risk of space object reentry

This paper proposes a procedure for managing the risk of reentering space objects and risk assessment methodologies used for the process. The proposed procedure comprises three phases encompassing the whole reentry stages of space objects. Mathematical models for assessing the impact risk of the reentering space objects by utilizing the information available during different risk management phases and the recommended risk analysis results for public communication are presented. The concept of the conditional casualty expectation is proposed as the metric representing the reentry risk and the method to compute its profile is introduced. A case study on the risk management procedure with the dataset on an actual reentry event is conducted to demonstrate the efficacy of the proposed procedure.