Aerosol measurements from earth orbiting spacecraft

Since the fall of 1978, two Earth-orbiting spacecraft sensors, SAM II, for Stratospheric Aerosol Measurement II, and SAGE, for Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment have been monitoring the global stratospheric aerosol. These experiments use the Sun as a source to make Earth-limb extinction measurements during each spacecraft sunrise and sunset. This paper describes the global aerosol data base (climatology) that is evolving. Seasonal and hemispheric variations such as the springtime layer expansion with warming temperatures and the local wintertime polar stratospheric clouds (PSC's) will be described. The PSC's enhance extinction by up to two orders of magnitude and optical depths by as much as an order of magnitude over the background 1000 nm values of about 1.2 × 10^?4 km^?1 and 1.3 × 10^?3, respectively. The detection and tracking of a number of volcanoes whose effluents penetrated the tropopause are also described. The mass of new aerosol injected into the stratosphere from each volcano is estimated. The May 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, for example, produced about 0.32 × 10⁹ kg of new stratospheric aerosol enhancing the Northern Hemispheric aerosol by more than 100 percent.     

Aerosol observations for climate studies

The SAM II and SAGE satellite systems have provided to date more than 5 years and almost 3 years, respectively, of data on atmospheric aerosol profiles on a near-global scale. Studies with these unique data sets are developing a global aerosol climatology for the first time and have shown the existence and quantification of polar stratospheric clouds (PSC's) and tropical stratospheric cirrus. In addition, a tropospheric cirrus climatology is evolving. Since these two experiments were launched, a series of large volcanic eruptions have occurred which have greatly impacted the stratospheric aerosol loading. The aerosol layer produced by the eruption of El Chichon, for example, increased the 30 mb temperatures in the northern tropics by as much as 4°C for 6 months after the eruption. This paper will describe in detail, from a climate perspective, the evolving aerosol and cloud climatologies as a function of space and time, and show the stratospheric dynamics of volcanic injections and their enhancements on stratospheric optical depth and mass loading.     

Vertical distribution of SO2 in upper cloud layer of Venus and Origin of U.V.-absorption

It is shown that decline of spherical albedo of Venus toward the ultraviolet can be explained by the presence of two absorbing agents: a) SO₂, for which abundance is 10¹¹ cm^?3 at height 68 km and scale height is about 1 km; b) some unknown aerosol absorbent, possibly a 1% FeCl₃ admixture in a sulfuric acid concentrated solution. A mechanism of aerosol formation is proposed.     

The role of volcanic aerosols and relativistic electrons in modulating winter storm vorticity

Small changes in the vorticity of winter storms, responding to solar wind variations, are found in winters from 1957 to 2011, and are greater for winters with higher levels of stratospheric volcanic aerosols. Using 1993–2011 data, the response of the vorticity area index (VAI) is shown to be of larger amplitude when the days of minima in the relativistic electron flux (REF) precipitating from the radiation belts are used, instead of heliospheric current sheet (HCS) crossings, as key days in superposed epoch analyses. The HCS crossings mostly occur within a few days of the REF minima. The VAI is an objective measure of the area of high cyclonic vorticity, and for the present work is derived from ERA-40 and ERA-Interim reanalyses of global meteorological data. The VAI dependencies on the stratospheric aerosol content (SAC) and the REF are consistent with a model in which the ionosphere-earth current density (J_z) affects cloud microphysics. One of the ways in which J_z is modulated is by changes in stratospheric column resistance (S), which is increased by stratospheric aerosols. Because S is in series with the tropospheric column resistance (T), J_z modulation by REF requires that S be not negligible with respect to T. So the J_z modulation and the VAI response appear when the SAC is very high, or the REF reductions (which also increase S) are very deep, and when the product of the SAC and the reciprocal of the REF exceeds a threshold value dependent on T.     

About a possible reference model for stratospheric NO2

After a brief review of observations of the global distribution of stratospheric NO₂, we will discuss the possibilities of combining different data sets to construct a NO₂ reference model. It is shown that difficulties mainly arise from the diversity of techniques and variability of NO₂ in the stratosphere. The diurnal variation and possibly a long term trend present special problems.     

Greenhouse gases and recovery of the Earth’s ozone layer

A numerical 2-D zonally averaged dynamical radiative-photochemical model of the ozonosphere including aerosol physics is used to examine the role of the greenhouse gases CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O in the recovery of the Earth’s ozone layer after reduction of anthropogenic discharges of chlorine and bromine compounds into the atmosphere. A weakness in efficiencies of all catalytic cycles of the ozone destruction due to cooling of the stratosphere caused by greenhouse gases is shown to be a dominant mechanism of the impact of the greenhouse gases on the ozone layer. Numerical experiments show that the total ozone changes caused by greenhouse gases will be comparable in absolute value with the changes due to chlorine and bromine species in the middle of the 21st century. Continuous anthropogenic growth of CO₂ will lead to a significantly faster recovery of the ozone layer. In this case, the global total ozone in the latitude range from 60°S to 60°N will reach its undisturbed level of 1980 by about 2040. If the CO₂ growth stops, the global total ozone will reach this level only by the end of the century.     

Mass spectrometric measurements of stratospheric ions

Recent in situ measurements with balloon borne quadrupole mass spectrometers, between 20 and 45 km altitude, are reviewed and discussed.The major stratospheric positive ions observed are proton hydrates [H⁺(H₂O)_n] and non proton hydrates of the form H⁺X_m(H₂O)₂. The data analysis allows a derivation of the vertical mixing ratio profile of X (most probably CH₃CN), which is compared with recent model calculations. From negative ion composition data, showing the presence of NO₃^? and HSO₄^? cluster ions, the density of sulfuric acid in the stratosphere is deduced. The implications of these findings on our understanding of the sulfur chemistry is briefly treated.Finally some other aspects such as contamination, cluster break up and the use of stratospheric ion mass spectra for determination of thermochemical data and other minor constituents are discussed.     

Cloud optical thickness feedbacks in the CO2 climate problem

A radiative-convective equilibrium model is developed and applied to study cloud optical thickness feedbacks in the CO₂ climate problem. The basic hypothesis is that in the warmer and moister CO₂-rich atmosphere, cloud liquid water content will generally be larger than at present, so that cloud optical thickness will be larger too. For clouds other than thin cirrus, the result is to increase the albedo more than to increase the greenhouse effect. Thus the sign of the feedback is negative: cloud optical properties alter in such a way as to reduce the surface and tropospheric warming caused by the addition of CO₂. This negative feedback can be substantial. When observational estimates of the temperature dependence of cloud liquid water content are employed in the model, the surface temperature change due to doubling CO₂ is reduced by about one half.     

NO2 field observations in the stratosphere during Map/Globus campaign in 1983 and 1985

NO₂ has been measured from balloons, plane and ground during Map/Globus Campaign in Europe in 1983. The results have shown an agreement between in situ and remote sensing techniques in the lower stratosphere, but some divergence at higher altitude. Part of the differences might be due to unknown experimental systematic errors and part to real atmospheric variations as the observations were not performed on the same day. In order to improve the knowledge of the instruments performances and to evaluate the NO_x stratospheric budget a new field campaign has been set up in Europe in 1985. Simultaneous in situ and balloons, ground and satellites remote sensing observations of NO and NO₂ were obtained, covering a 24 H period.     

Satellite observations of upper atmosphere O3 and HNO3 from the Limb Infrared Monitor of the Stratosphere (LIMS) experiment on Nimbus 7

The Limb Infrared Monitor of the Stratosphere (LIMS) experiment is a limb scanning infrared sounder designed to measure vertical temperature profiles and the concentrations of key chemical compounds which are important in the stratospheric ozone-nitrogen photochemistry. This paper describes results from the O₃ and HNO₃ channels with emphasis on validation of the data. Similar discussions of results from the other channels are presented in two companion papers published in these proceedings.     

Passive remote sensing of aerosols from space now and in the future

Aerosols modify scattered solar radiation leaving the atmosphere and this fact will be exploited to determine the aerosol optical depth. The interaction processes between solar radiation and aerosol particles are outlined. A quasi-linear relationship (‘conversion curves’) between the radiance at the satellite, L_sat, and the aerosol optical depth, a_Dλ, is found from both numerical and empirical studies. Because L_sat is not only controlled by a_Dλ, but also by a series of other atmospheric parameters (perturbing quantities), the concept of ‘favourable viewing conditions’ is presented, where the effects of the perturbing quantities are minimal. The paper ends with some lines of thought on a concept for a turbidity satellite.     

H2O concentration in the middle atmosphere: Processing of LIMS radiance measurements with a research algorithm

Transmittance functions as well as inversion algorithms have been developed for deriving H₂O profiles from radiometer measurements. These computer programs have been applied to evaluate own stratospheric balloon occultation measurements and LIMS (Limb Infrared Monitor of the Stratosphere) radiance measurements in the H₂O channel. The results are compared with the H₂O profiles in the LIMS data archive. The differences between corresponding H₂O profiles are discussed in dependence of altitude and latitude.     

The influence of the several very large solar proton events in years 2000–2003 on the neutral middle atmosphere

Solar proton events (SPEs) are known to have caused changes in constituents in the Earth’s polar neutral middle atmosphere. The past four years, 2000–2003, have been replete with SPEs. Huge fluxes of high energy protons entered the Earth’s atmosphere in periods lasting 2–3 days in July and November 2000, September and November 2001 and October 2003. The highly energetic protons produce ionizations, excitations, dissociations and dissociative ionizations of the background constituents, which lead to the production of HO_x (H, OH, HO₂) and NO_y (N, NO, NO₂, NO₃, N₂O₅, HNO₃, HO₂NO₂, ClONO₂, BrONO₂). The HO_x increases lead to short-lived ozone decreases in the polar mesosphere and upper stratosphere due to the short lifetimes of the HO_x constituents. Large mesospheric ozone depletions (>70%) due to the HO_x enhancements were observed and modeled as a result of the very large July 2000 SPE. The NO_y increases lead to long-lived stratospheric ozone changes because of the long lifetime of the NO_y family in this region. Polar total ozone depletions >1% were simulated in both hemispheres for extended periods of time (several months) as a result of the NO_y enhancements due to the very large SPEs.     

Variation of monthly mean foF2 and hmF2 over a mid latitude station during the period 1997–2006

Ionosonde data of a mid latitude station Novosibirsk (Geog. Lat. 54.6°N, Geog. Long. 83.2°E) has been analyzed for the years 1997–2006 that covers the major part of solar cycle 23. Our results show the presence of winter anomaly in the daytime F2 layer critical frequency during different phases of solar activity. Results also reveal a semiannual variation of foF₂ with two maxima and a minimum that always appears in summer. While the first maximum is in the spring equinox, the second one is found to shift from autumn to winter with the increase of solar activity. The maximum height of F2 layer during the daytime shows variation with the solar activity. It is higher during the higher activity periods and lower during the periods of low activity. Results of ionosonde observations have been compared with those obtained from IRI-2007 model and it is found that model reproduces gross features of foF₂ variation. However, the modeled hmF₂ variations during equinoxes are significantly different from the ones derived using the ionosonde data. The model also underestimates the hmF₂ values.     

Detection of aerosol pollution sources during sandstorms in Northwestern China using remote sensed and model simulated data

The present paper has used a comprehensive approach to study atmosphere pollution sources including the study of vertical distribution characteristics, the epicenters of occurrence and transport of atmospheric aerosol in North-West China under intensive dust storm registered in all cities of the region in April 2014. To achieve this goal, the remote sensing data using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer satellite (MODIS) as well as model-simulated data, were used, which facilitate tracking the sources, routes, and spatial extent of dust storms. The results of the study have shown strong territory pollution with aerosol during sandstorm. According to ground-based air quality monitoring stations data, concentrations of PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 exceeded 400?μg/m³ and 150?μg/m³, respectively, the ratio PM_2.5/PM₁₀ being within the range of 0.123–0.661. According to MODIS/Terra Collection 6 Level-2 aerosol products data and the Deep Blue algorithm data, the aerosol optical depth (AOD) at 550?nm in the pollution epicenter was within 0.75–1. The vertical distribution of aerosols indicates that the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations (CALIPSO) 532?nm total attenuates backscatter coefficient ranges from 0.01 to 0.0001?km^?1?×?sr^?1 with the distribution of the main types of aerosols in the troposphere of the region within 0–12.5?km, where the most severe aerosol contamination is observed in the lower troposphere (at 3–6?km). According to satellite sounding and model-simulated data, the sources of pollution are the deserted regions of Northern and Northwestern China.     

The variability of stratospheric nitrogen compounds observed by LIMS in the winter of 1978–1979

The LIMS experiment was launched on the Nimbus 7 satellite for the purpose of sounding the vertical structure of temperature and key upper atmosphere trace gases on a global scale. The technique of thermal infrared limb sounding was used to obtain measurements of O₃, H₂O, NO₂, and HNO₃. LIMS collected data almost continuously from late October to late May over the latitude range from 64°S to 84°N. Two of the gases, NO₂ and HNO₃, are important elements in the NO_x chain of chemical reactions leading to ozone destruction. We will describe results for these gases in terms of zonal mean profiles and latitudinal distributions. The period selected for study is January–May 1979, when a major stratospheric warming occurred.     

The links between atmospheric vorticity,radiation belt electrons,and the solar wind

The links between winter storm intensity and solar wind variations associated with Heliospheric Current Sheet (HCS) crossings are shown to be present in 1997 through 2002 data without the necessity of high stratospheric aerosol loading.     

Early winter meteor wind over Bologna (45°N, 11°E)

The Bologna meteor radar was operational during two winter campaigns, from 6 January 1982 to 1 February 1982 and from 10 December 1982 to 2 February 1983. As occurrence of minor stratospheric warmings has been reported for these intervals, possible effects on meteor wind over Bologna related to this kind of warming are pointed out. Zonal and meridional prevailing winds are found to exhibit the maximum peak to peak value in their oscillations when a minor stratospheric warming reaches such an intensity that ΔT_{(90°N–60°N)} at 10 mbar is reversed. Diurnal and semidiurnal tides exhibit usual amplitude variations, but the semidiurnal tide has a noticeable phase shift at the time of a minor warming occurrence, while a similar shift is less evident in the diurnal tide phase.