Effect of geomagnetic field disturbances on the adaptive stress reaction of cosmonauts

Investigations of the effect of geomagnetic activity factors on the cardiac rhythm regulation and arterial pressure of cosmonauts during the expeditions onboard the Soyuz spacecraft, and the MIR and ISS orbital space stations was carried out for various durations of flight in weightlessness and, under control. Groups of cosmonauts were inspected under flight conditions outside the geomagnetic disturbances and in ground preflight conditions, during disturbances without them. The presence of specific effect of geomagnetic disturbances on the system of vegetative regulation of blood circulation of cosmonauts during the flight was demonstrated for the first time. The response of cosmonauts’ cardiac rhythm on the magnetic storm is definitely revealed; however, it depends on the initial functional background and, in particular, on the state of mechanisms of vegetative regulation (the duration of flight and adaptation to it).     

Using the Subsurface Soil Sounding Radar for Investigating the Structure and Total Electron Content of the Martian Ionosphere

The possibilities of using the Martian soil subsurface sounding radar for investigating the structure of the plasma shell surrounding the planet have been considered. Based on the numerical modeling results and actual soil sounding data, it has been shown that the soil sounding mode of the radio-locating MARSIS radar can be used to assess the structure of the Martian ionosphere. As the emitted signals pass to the planet’s surface, it is possible to use the reflected signals to estimate the total electron content of the Martian ionosphere along the flight track of the spacecraft.     

载人飞船泄复压过程中轨道舱的噪声环境试验研究

为了考察航天员对载人飞船泄复压过程中轨道舱内噪声环境的适应性,在KM6水平舱进行了相应的模拟试验,对轨道舱中的噪声环境进行了试验测量与研究.试验结果及航天员的实际感受表明,泄复压过程中轨道舱内的噪声环境满足要求,产生的噪声对航天员不会造成伤害.     

Plasma and urine catecholamine levels in cosmonauts during long-term stay on Space Station Salyut-7.

The activity of the sympathetic adrenal system in cosmonauts exposed to a stay in space lasting for about half a year has so far been studied only by measuring catecholamine levels in plasma and urine samples taken before space flight and after landing. The device "Plasma 01", specially designed for collecting and processing venous blood from subjects during space flight on board the station Salyut-7 rendered it possible for the first time to collect and freeze samples of blood from cosmonauts in the course of a long-term 237-day space flight. A physician-cosmonaut collected samples of blood and urine from two cosmonauts over the period of days 217-219 of their stay in space. The samples were transported to Earth frozen. As indicators of the sympathetic adrenal system activity, plasma and urine concentrations of epinephrine and norepinephrine as well as urine levels of the catecholamine metabolites metanephrine, normetanephrine, and vanillylmandelic acid were determined before, during and after space flight. On days 217-219 of space flight plasma epinephrine and norepinephrine levels were slightly increased, yet not substantially different from normal. During stress situations plasma norepinephrine and epinephrine levels usually exhibit a manifold increase. On days 217-219 of space flight norepinephrine and epinephrine levels in urine were comparable with pre-flight values and the levels of their metabolites were even significantly decreased. All the parameters studied, particularly plasma norepinephrine as well as urine norepinephrine, normetanephrine, and vanillylmandelic acid, reached the highest values 8 days after landing. The results obtained suggest that, in the period of days 217-219 of the cosmonauts stay in space in the state of weightlessness, the sympathetic adrenal system is either not activated at all or there is but a slight activation induced by specific activities of the cosmonauts, whereas in the process of re-adaptation after space flight on Earth this system is considerably more markedly activated.     

Static torsional otolith–cervical–ocular reflex after prolonged exposure to weightlessness and a 7-day immersion

To determine the role of the support-proprioceptive factor in the functioning of the vestibular system, in particular the static torsional otolith–cervical–ocular reflex (OCOR), comparative OCOR studies with videooculography recording were performed after a 7-day “dry” horizontal immersion (16 subjects) and after a prolonged (126–195 days) exposure to weightlessness (13 cosmonauts). For the first time, it was demonstrated that minimization of the support and proprioceptive afferentation may result in an inversion or absence of the static torsional OCOR and the development of a positional nystagmus with an inverted reflex. A comparative OCOR data analysis of cosmonauts and immersion subjects has revealed similarity of responses. However, changes in OCOR after immersion were noted in only 60% of the subjects, while after space flight, 90% of cosmonauts showed them. Post-flight changes were more frequent, marked and long-lasting. Statistical analysis has shown that there were significant differences between pre- and post-flight data according to both parametric and non-parametric methods of multiple comparisons, whereas only parametric methods have found significant differences within immersion data.     

基于形状的火卫一重力场研究

介绍基于形状对不规则小天体重力场建模的原理和方法,并通过解析法和数值法对火卫一的重力场进行正演建模。相比之前的重力场模型,基于解析算法获得的17阶次球谐展开形式重力场模型,在分辨率上有显著提高。进一步结合火卫一动力学参数,分析了火卫一表面加速度。结果显示,火卫一因其轨道十分接近火星,导致表面离心力和潮汐力十分显著,在某些区域与自引力相当,造成火卫一的特殊表面重力环境。这些结果可为未来的火卫一探测和科学研究提供基本输入物理场模型,也可为其他小天体探测中的类似问题提供方法参考。     

地面力学在火星壤力学参数估计研究中的 进展与展望

掌握火星土壤的力学参数是保障火星车顺利完成巡视探测的关键。通过对已成功开展的火星巡视探测任务进行汇总，探讨了复杂火星地貌对火星车移动性能的影响，分析了基于地面力学理论的火星土壤力学参数估计方法，包括：基于车轮的火星壤在轨力学参数估计方法和基于轮壤力学模型的力学参数辨识方法。最后，对未来关于地面力学在星壤力学参数评估进行了探讨。     

Effects of space flights on human allergic status (IgE-mediated sensitivity)

Suppression of the immune system after space flights of different duration has been reported earlier by Konstantinova [Immune system in extreme conditions, Space immunology. B. 59. M. Science 1988. 289p. (in Russian) [4]; Immunoresistance of man in space flight, Acta Astronautica 23 (1991) 123–127 [5]]. Changes in T- and B-mediated activities of the immune system were demonstrated during and after space flight. However, the influence of the space flight conditions on the allergic status of cosmonauts and astronauts is still unclear. The goal of this investigation was to analyze total blood IgE levels, specific IgE-antibodies and interleukin-4 in blood of Russian crew members before and after space flights to the International Space Station (ISS) and during a long-term isolation study. For this purpose, we used the ELISA assays as well as other special kits. It was noticed that four out of nine cosmonauts had high total serum IgE (more than normal clinical values of 120 IU/ml). At the same time, there were no statistically significant changes in serum IgE levels before and after long-term space flights (128–195 days). A similar situation was observed regarding preflight IgE levels of cosmonauts who performed short-term flights (7–11 days). However, seven out of 11 cosmonauts had increased IgE level in blood post short flights as compared with pre-flight values. We also measured specific IgE-antibodies, because their high concentration may cause the increased production of total IgE indicating sensitization of cosmonauts. This becomes more important when humans spend a longer time in the closed environment of a space vehicle. Also our ground-based investigations showed that a stay in such conditions does not enhance sensitization to allergens (total number of tested allergens 27) including food, inhalants and cross-reactive proteins. Serum interleukin-4 level measured after short- and long-term space flights was identical. A linear correlation between levels of immunoglobulin E and interleukin-4 also was not significant. Despite the fact that our investigations did not establish any influence of space flight on sensitization and development of immediate-type allergic reactions, they demonstrated the necessity to control the allergic status of cosmonauts very carefully both before and after space flights. At the same time, it is necessary to pay special attention to outcomes of atopic individuals with high pre-flight level of total blood IgE.     

火星及其环境

火星环境类似于地球,而探索其生命存在是重大的科学任务。在火星探测中,对火星及其环境的了解与研究是重要的任务目标,事关探测任务的成功实施。文章对国外火星探测已发布的成果进行收集和整理,其中包含大量的相关数据。这些知识和数据是火星探测任务设计的输入条件,可为我国火星探测计划的制定提供参考依据。     

Influence of graviceptives cues at different level of visual information processing: the effect of prolonged weightlessness

We evaluated the influence of prolonged weightlessness on the performance of visual tasks in the course of the Russian-French missions ANTARES, Post-ANTARES and ALTAIR aboard the MIR station. Eight cosmonauts were subjects in two experiments executed pre-flight, in-flight and post-flight sessions.

In the first experiment, cosmonauts performed a task of symmetry detection in 2-D polygons. The results indicate that this detection is locked in a head retinal reference frame rather than in an environmentally defined one as meridional orientations of symmetry axis (vertical and horizontal) elicited faster response times than oblique ones. However, in weightlessness the saliency of a retinally vertical axis of symmetry is no longer significantly different from an horizontal axis. In the second experiment, cosmonauts performed a mental rotation task in which they judged whether two 3-D objects presented in different orientations were identical. Performance on this task is basically identical in weightlessness and normal gravity.     

The experience in operation and improving the Orlan-type space suits

Nowadays significant experience has been gained in Russia concerning extravehicular activity (EVA) with cosmonauts wearing a semi-rigid space suit of the "Orlan" type. The conditions for the cosmonauts' vital activities, the operational and ergonomic features of the space suit and its reliability are the most critical factors defining the efficiency of the scheduled operation to be performed by the astronaut and his safety. As the missions performed by the cosmonauts during EVA become more and more elaborate, the requirements for EVA space suits and their systems become more and more demanding, resulting in their consistent advancement. This paper provides certain results of the space suit's operation and analysis of its major problems as applied to the Salyut and MIR orbiting stations. The modification steps of the space suit in the course of operation (Orlan-D, Orlan-DM, Orlan-DMA) and its specific features are presented. The concept of the suited cosmonauts' safety is described as well as trends for future space suit improvements.     

Leisure time activities in space: a survey of astronauts and cosmonauts

Questionnaires were returned from 54 astronauts and cosmonauts which addressed preferences for media and media-generated subjects that could be used to occupy leisure time in space. Ninety-three percent of the respondents had access to records or audio cassettes, and cosmonauts had greater access than astronauts to multiple media. Cosmonauts and long-duration space travelers reported that they missed various media more than their astronaut and short-duration counterparts. Media subjects that related to international events, national events and historical topics were rated as most preferable by all respondents and by several of the respondent groups. The findings are discussed in terms of their relevance for occupying free time during future long-duration manned space missions.     

Biological potential of Martian hydrothermal systems

A source of energy to power metabolism may be a limiting factor in the abundance and spatial distribution of past or extant life on Mars. Although a global average of chemical energy available for microbial metabolism and biomass production on Mars has been estimated previously, issues of how the energy is distributed and which particular environments have the greatest potential to support life remain unresolved. We address these issues using geochemical models to evaluate the amounts of chemical energy available in one potential biological environment, Martian hydrothermal systems. In these models, host rock compositions are based upon the compositions of Martian meteorites, which are reacted at high temperature with one of three groundwater compositions. For each model, the values for Gibbs energy of reactions that are important for terrestrial chemosynthetic organisms and likely representative for putative Martian microbes are calculated. Our results indicate that substantial amounts of chemical energy may be available in these systems, depending most sensitively upon the composition of the host rock. From the standpoint of sources of metabolic energy, it is likely that suitable environments exist to support Martian life.     

Diuretic as a means for rapid adaptation to weightlessness

In a number of flights, cosmonauts and astronauts have experienced aggravation of their health status and general condition in the initial hours and days in a weightless environment. One of the trigger mechanisms for the onset of these unfavourable conditions at the start of space flight is a redistribution of body fluids and a blood shift towards the head. To ensure controlled hypohydration as a countermeasure to the deleterious effects of 0-g and to investigate the feasibility to control adaptation, six cosmonauts were administered lasix once a day during the first 3 days of a mission. All data of the experiment (correction test, questionnaire, hematocrit) were recorded on a special form in the logbook and transmitted to the control centre for processing. Results showed that the diuretic weakened the sensation of discomfort and improved the cosmonauts' general condition. Objective indices of the correction test indicate an increased work ability of cosmonauts. After hypohydration, circulating plasma volumes in the group were reduced by 6.8 + 1.0% on average.     

The visual stress model--a psycho-physiological method for the evaluation of operational reliability of pilots and cosmonauts.

An experimental psycho-physiological method is presented for the evaluation of visual-cognitive performance preconditions and operational reliability of pilots and cosmonauts. As visual-cognitive stress are used tachistoscopically presented instrument symbols under conditions of individual speed of work and time pressure. The results of the compared extreme groups consisting of pilots with good and insufficient flight performance showed that the pilots with impairments to the quality of flight activity differ already before the test in their individual habitual characteristics and actual motivation, during the stress in their operational parameters, in the dimensions of their cardiorespiratory activation as well as in their efficiency and after the stress in their subjective experience of the stress. Conclusions are drawn for the evaluation of the aptitude of pilots and cosmonauts.     

The dynamics of blood biochemical parameters in cosmonauts during long-term space flights

Most of the previously obtained data on cosmonauts' metabolic state concerned certain stages of the postflight period. In this connection, all conclusions, as to metabolism peculiarities during the space flight, were to a large extent probabilistic. The purpose of this work was study of metabolism characteristics in cosmonauts directly during long-term space flights. In the capillary blood samples taken from a finger, by "Reflotron IV" biochemical analyzer, "Boehringer Mannheim" GmbH, Germany, adapted to weightlessness environments, the activity of GOT, GPT, CK, gamma-GT, total and pancreatic amylase, as well as concentration of hemoglobin, glucose, total bilirubin, uric acid, urea, creatinine, total, HDL- and LDL cholesterol, triglycerides had been determined. HDL/LDL-cholesterol ratio also was computed. The crewmembers of 6 main missions to the "Mir" orbital station, a total of 17 cosmonauts, were examined. Biochemical tests were carried out 30-60 days before launch, and in the flights different stages between the 25-th and the 423-rd days of flights. In cosmonauts during space flight had been found tendency to increase, in compare with basal level, GOT, GPT, total amylase activity, glucose and total cholesterol concentration, and tendency to decrease of CK activity, hemoglobin, HDL-cholesterol concentration, and HDL/LDL - cholesterol ratio. Some definite trends in variations of other determined biochemical parameters had not been found. The same trends of mentioned biochemical parameters alterations observed in majority of tested cosmonauts, allows to suppose existence of connection between noted metabolic alterations with influence of space flight conditions upon cosmonaut's body. Variations of other studied blood biochemical parameters depends on, probably, pure individual causes.     

Study of water-salt metabolism and renal function in cosmonauts

In manned space flights the renal function and water-salt metabolism undergo substantial changes. With the reserve capabilities of kidneys in mind, their function and regulation of the water-salt balance were investigated in cosmonauts postflight and in Earth-bound simulation experiments with the aid of water loading, hormonal injections (pituitrin, engiotensin, DOCA, ACTH); water- and ion-release were also studied during LBNP and physical exercises. The cosmonauts who performed space flights of 2 to 5 days showed water retention and increased urine excretion of salts during the first postflight days in response to a water load. After the 18-day flight water excretion remained unchanged whereas salt excretion increased. The capacity for osmotic concentration and urine dilution did not alter. The study of the hormonal effect in simulation experiments of different duration demonstrated a normal renal response to the hormonal excretion. After the LBNP tests and physical exercises the water- and salt-excretion declined; a correlation between the level of water- and salt-excretion and the level of these loads was established. The data on the blood- and urine-ionic composition, excretion of nitrogen metabolites, and hormones postflight as well as the results of load and functional tests suggest that changes in the renal function of cosmonauts in weightlessness are associated with regulatory effects on the kidney rather than disturbances in the function of nephron cells.     

Does life's rapid appearance imply a Martian origin?

The hypothesis that life's rapid appearance on Earth justifies the belief that life is widespread in the universe has been investigated mathematically by Lineweaver and Davis (Astrobiology 2002;2:293-304). However, a rapid appearance could also be interpreted as evidence for a nonterrestrial origin. I attempt to quantify the relative probabilities for a non-indigenous versus indigenous origin, on the assumption that biogenesis involves one or more highly improbable steps, using a generalization of Carter's well-known observer-selection argument. The analysis is specifically applied to a Martian origin of life, with subsequent transfer to Earth within impact ejecta. My main result is that the relatively greater probability of a Martian origin rises sharply as a function of the number of difficult steps involved in biogenesis. The actual numerical factor depends on what is assumed about conditions on early Mars, but for a wide range of assumptions a Martian origin of life is decisively favored. By contrast, an extrasolar origin seems unlikely using the same analysis. These results complement those of Lineweaver and Davis.     

Martian polar expeditions: problems and solutions.

The Martian polar ice caps are regions of substantial scientific interest, being the most dynamic regions of Mars. They are volatile sinks and thus closely linked to Martian climatic conditions. Because of their scale and the precedent set by the past history of polar exploration on Earth, it is likely that an age of polar exploration will emerge on the surface of Mars after the establishment of a capable support structure at lower latitudes. Expeditions might be launched either from a lower latitude base camp or from a human-tended polar base. Based on previously presented expeditionary routes to the Martian poles, in this paper a "spiral in-spiral out" unsupported transpolar assault on the Martian north geographical pole is used as a Reference expedition to propose new types of equipment for the human polar exploration of Mars. Martian polar "ball" tents and "hover" modifications to the Nansen sledge for sledging on CO2-containing water ice substrates under low atmospheric pressures are suggested as elements for the success of these endeavours.Other challenges faced by these expeditions are quantitatively and qualitatively addressed.     

Methodological approach to study of cosmonauts errors and its instrumental support

The methodological approach to the study of cosmonauts errors is discussed in the paper. Within its framework an error is considered in psychophysiological aspect as consequence of cosmonaut "psychophysiological troubles" caused by combined effect of flight extreme conditions on his/her organism. This approach was used for the investigation of interrelation between cosmonauts errors, their psychophysiological state and work-rest schedule peculiarities. It includes procedures of expert analysis of data received in the course of radio and TV sessions with crew, analysis of timelines as well deviations in "crew-spacecraft" system functioning. These data are accumulated, systematized and processed in data base. Realization of the suggested approach does not require specialized onboard equipment and crew members time expenditure. Some results of inflight data analysis are presented to illustrate its potentials.