Convective-diffusive transport in vapor growth ampoules

Theoretical and experimental work on heat and mass transport in crystal growth by closed ampoule vapor transport is reviewed. It is shown that double-diffusive phenomena, together with the three-dimensional boundary conditions of real systems lead to a complexity of the transport modes that are beyond the reach of the simplifying models currently used in the materials preparation literature. Consequences of the new insights for earth-bound vapor transport and for optimization of future space experiments are discussed.     

Particulated growth media for optimal liquid and gaseous fluxes to plant roots in microgravity.

An important and yet relatively under researched area of plant growth in microgravity, deals with the rooting environment of plants. A comprehensive approach for selecting the physical characteristics of root growth media which optimizes the dynamic availability of water and dissolved nutrients, and gases to plant roots was developed and tested. Physically-based and parametric models describing the relationship between content and fluxes of liquids and gases were used to cast a multi-objective optimization problem. This methodology reveals that a medium's ability to supply liquid and gas fluxes optimally is dependent upon physiological target values, system operation limits and root module design which dictate the medium's range of soil water characteristic and particle size distribution. Optimized media parameters designate a particle size distribution from which a particulated growth media was constructed and matched to the optimized media parameters. This methodology should improve the selection of optimal media properties for plant growth in microgravity as well as other porous media applications.     

不同重力条件下单气泡池沸腾现象的数值研究

对不同重力条件下常压饱和水中单气泡池沸腾现象的气泡生长过程及传热特性进行了数值模拟. 采用简化的润滑流模型计算生长气泡底部微液膜的贡献, 而其他宏观区域的气液两相介质则用连续界面模型统一处理. 气液界面形状和加热面上接触线的运动分别采用Level Set方法和固定的表观接触角来近似刻画. 计算结果表明, 气泡生长过程中, 当量直径近似与生长时间的1/3～1/2次方成正比, 重力对相关趋势的影响不大, 但强烈影响着气泡脱落直径和生长时间, 其中脱落直径反比于重力的1/3次方, 生长时间反比于重力的4/5次方. 在固定的核化点数密度条件下, 加热面平均热流密度近似与壁面过热度的3/2次方成正比, 该趋势并不随重力的减弱而改变.      

Canopy photosynthesis and transpiration in microgravity: gas exchange measurements aboard Mir.

The SVET Greenhouse on-board the Orbital Station Mir was used to measure canopy photosynthesis and transpiration rates for the first time in space. During the Greenhouse IIB experiment on Mir (June-January 1997), carbon and water vapor fluxes from two wheat (cv. Superdwarf) canopies were measured using the US developed Gas Exchange Measurement System (GEMS). Gas analyzers capable of resolving CO2 concentration differences of 5 micromoles mol-1 against a background of 0.9% CO2, are necessary to measure photosynthetic and respiratory rates on Mir. The ability of the GEMS gas analyzers to measure these CO2 concentration differences was determined during extensive ground calibrations. Similarly, the sensitivity of the analyzers to water vapor was sufficient to accurately measure canopy evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration, which accounted for over 90% of the water added to the root zone, was estimated using gas exchange and used to estimate substrate moisture content. This paper presents canopy photosynthesis and transpiration data during the peak vegetative phase of development in microgravity.     

地磁场的长期变化对辐射带质子通量计算的影响

用不同年代的国际地磁参考场(IGR)模式及最新的辐射带粒子通量模式,计算了低高度上空间某点的辐射带质子通量随时间的变化,讨论了地磁场的长期变化对L-B坐标及辐射带带电粒子通量计算的影响,对正确使用地磁场模式计算磁壳参量L及辐射带粒子通量模式给予了说明和建议.      

Determining the potential productivity of food crops in controlled environments.

The quest to determine the maximum potential productivity of food crops is greatly benefitted by crop growth models. Many models have been developed to analyze and predict crop growth in the field, but it is difficult to predict biological responses to stress conditions. Crop growth models for the optimal environments of a Controlled Environment Life Support System (CELSS) can be highly predictive. This paper discusses the application of a crop growth model to CELSS; the model is used to evaluate factors limiting growth. The model separately evaluates the following four physiological processes: absorption of PPF by photosynthetic tissue, carbon fixation (photosynthesis), carbon use (respiration), and carbon partitioning (harvest index). These constituent processes determine potentially achievable productivity. An analysis of each process suggests that low harvest index is the factor most limiting to yield. PPF absorption by plant canopies and respiration efficiency are also of major importance. Research concerning productivity in a CELSS should emphasize: 1) the development of gas exchange techniques to continuously monitor plant growth rates and 2) environmental techniques to reduce plant height in communities.     

Thermal net flux measurements on the pioneer Venus entry probes

Corrected thermal net radiation measurements from the four Pioneer Venus entry probes at latitudes of 60°N, 31°S, 27°S, and 4°N are presented. Three main conclusions can be drawn from comparisons of the corrected fluxes with radiative transfer calculations: (1) sounder probe net fluxes are consistent with the number density of large cloud particles (mode 3) measured on the same probe, but the IR measurements as a whole are most consistent with a significantly reduced mode 3 contribution to the cloud opacity; (2) at all probe sites, the fluxes imply that the upper cloud contains a yet undetected source of IR opacity; and (3) beneath the clouds the fluxes at a given altitude increase with latitude, suggesting greater IR cooling below the clouds at high latitudes and water vapor mixing ratios of about 2–5×10^?5 near 60°, 2–5×10^?4 near 30°, and >5×10^?4 near the equator.     

Retrieval of the change of precipitable water vapor with zenith tropospheric delay in the Chinese mainland

As a preliminary step for assessing the impact of global positioning system (GPS) refractive delay data in numerical weather prediction (NWP) models, the GPS zenith tropospheric delays (ZTD) are analyzed from 28 permanent GPS sites in the Chinese mainland. The objectives are to estimate the GPS ZTD and their variability in this area. The differences between radiosonde precipitable water vapor (PWV) and GPS PWV have a standard deviation of 4 mm in delay, a bias of 0.24 mm in delay, and a correlation coefficient of 0.94. The correlation between GPS ZTD and radiosonde PWV amounts to 0.89, indicating that the variety of tropospheric zenith delay can reflect the change of precipitable water vapor. The good agreement also guarantees that the information provided by GPS will benefit the NWP models. The time series of GPS ZTD, which were derived continuously from 2002 to 2004, are used to analyze the change of precipitable water vapor in Chinese mainland. It shows that the general trend of GPS ZTD is diminishing from the south-east coastland to the north-west inland, which is in accordance with the distribution of Chinese annual amount of rainfall. The temporal distribution of GPS ZTD in the Chinese mainland is that the GPS ZTD reaches maximum in summer, and it reaches minimum in winter. The long term differences between the observational data sources require further study before GPS derived data become useful for climate studies.     

“Biospherics” approach for studies of natural and artificial ecosystems

The main unifying feature of natural and artificial ecosystems is their biotic turnover (cycling) of substances which is induced with energy fluxes. A new integrating scientific discipline – Biospherics – studies biotic cycles (both in experiments and in mathematical models) of different degree of closure and complexity. By its origin, Biospherics is to be connected with extensive studies of Biosphere by Russian academician Vladimir Vernadsky. He developed and used “empirical generalizations” based on innumerous observations, comparisons and reflections. His “bio-geo-chemical principles” of Biosphere and ecosystems development have more qualitative than quantitative nature. Quantitative criteria to evaluate the efficiency of natural and artificial ecosystems are to take into account energy fluxes and their use in ecosystems of different types. At least, three of them are of value for estimation of natural and artificial ecosystems’ functional activities. Energy principle of extensive development (EPED), energy principle of intensive development (EPID) and main universal (generalized) criterion (MUC). The last criterion (Principle) characterizes the specific cycling rate of limiting chemical elements in multi-organism systems, developing under external energy fluxes. Its value can be a quantitative measure of effectiveness for every ecosystem functioning, including our global Biosphere. Different examples of these (above-mentioned) integrated criteria actions are presented and analyzed in the paper.     

Some problems with developing a standard for determining solar energetic particle fluxes

Based on the author’s experience in ISO TC20/SC14 Working Group 4, this paper discusses the common problems encountered when developing a standard for solar energetic particle (SEP) fluxes. The problem involving the reliability of the distribution function describing the SEP events and the interpolation of this function into the region of not-yet-observed large events are discussed. The problems with describing the fluences of SEPs over a wide range of energy in the form of energetic spectra are analyzed. Requirements for SEP flux models are formulated. The reliability of some SEP flux models is determined by comparing their predictions with the experimental data.     

Retrieval of crop variables with field-based X-band microwave remote sensing of ladyfinger

Modeling in agriculture has been widely used to retrieve and monitor various soil and crop growth variables. Remote sensing, especially radar sensors can be useful for temporal and spatial monitoring of the soil and plant variables. Therefore, in this paper field measurements of crop ladyfinger were carried out to examine the dependency of radar backscatter on crop–soil variables and to develop a method for monitoring and retrieving crop variables for ladyfinger. A crop-bed was prepared to observe scatterometer response in the angular range of incidence angle 20–70° at 9.89 GHz in the X-band for VV- and HH-polarization. At the same time, soil moisture, plant height, leaf area index and aboveground biomass were measured at various growth stages of crop ladyfinger. The angular variation of scattering coefficient decreases with the age of crop ladyfinger shows the dominance of crop effect on soil moisture effect at the older age. Thus, angular trends are more flat as the plant grows since the effects of soil is masked by developing vegetation. Scattering coefficient increases with the increase of leaf area index for both polarizations (i.e. VV- and HH-). It was found that leaf area index and aboveground biomass of crop ladyfinger are highly correlated with microwave frequency more than with plant height and soil moisture. Leaf area index and biomass of ladyfinger crop were retrieved by polarization based model and non-linear least square optimization model. These two models gave very good results for the retrieval of leaf area index and aboveground biomass.     

The physical mechanism of the solar variability influence on electrical and climatic characteristics of the troposphere

Possible mechanisms of solar–climatic connections, which may be of importance over short and long time intervals, are discussed. The variations of energetic balance of Earth’s climatic system for the last 50 years are estimated. It is ascertained that the imbalance between the flux of solar energy that comes to the Earth and radiates to space is of 0.1% for the last ten years. The significance is analyzed for the possible influence of variations of solar constant upon the energetic balance of the atmosphere.The physical mechanism of the influence of solar activity on climatic characteristics and the atmospheric circulation is suggested and theoretically substantiated. The mechanism is based on the redistribution in lower-troposphere of condensation nuclei by the vertical electric field. This electric field is determined by the ionosphere–Earth electric potential, which in the Polar Regions is controlled not only by tropical thunderstorms and by the galactic cosmic-ray intensity but also by solar cosmic-ray fluxes. The height redistribution in the atmosphere of condensation nuclei with a change of the electric field of the atmosphere is accompanied by a change in total latent heat (phase transition of water vapor), by changes in radiation balance, and by subsequent changes of the thermobaric field of troposphere. The results of analysis of thermobaric field variations for the periods of invasion of abnormally powerful solar cosmic ray fluxes and magnetic storms confirm the reality of manifestation of heliogeophysical disturbances.     

Measurements of water vapour in the mesosphere with the spectral absorption line imager (SALI)

Water vapour concentration is one of the most important, yet one of the least known quantities of the mesosphere. Knowledge of water vapour concentration is the key to understanding many mesospheric processes, including the one that is primary focus of our investigation, Polar Mesospheric Clouds (PMC). The processes of formation and occurrence parameters of PMC constitute an interesting problem in their own right, but recent evidence had been provided which suggests that PMC are a critical indicator of climate change. In this context the feasibility of a low cost method of water vapour measurements using an instrument carried aloft by a sounding rocket has been examined and some of the results discussed. It is proposed to measure the strength of the 936nm water absorption line in a solar occultation configuration employing a CCD detector. This leads to the design of a small, low cost and low-mass instrument, which can be flown on a small rocket, of the type of the Orbital Sciences Corporation Viper 5. Alternatively the instrument can be flown as a “passenger” on larger rocket carrying other experiments. In either case flight costs are relatively low. Some performance simulations are presented showing that the instrument we have designed will be sufficiently sensitive to measure water vapor in concentrations that are expected at the summer mesopause, about 85 km height. Sufficient payload design work was carried out showing that the structural, thermal and electrical requirements for a flight on the Viper 5 rocket can be met and thus making the experiment feasible for a flight.     

小型平板CPL实现高热流密度散热的研究

针对小型平板毛细抽吸两相流体回路(CPL)在高热流密度下的特点,分析了不同工质时系统的压力损失与毛细芯的毛细抽吸力,得出采用氨工质有着较好的传热性能和更高的毛细限,同时得出影响系统毛细限的主要因素是蒸汽联管管径和工质的蒸气密度,提出了工质传输系数作为选取工质的重要指标。建立了蒸发器多孔芯,金属壁面以及工质气、液空间区域的耦合数学模型,并运用SIMPLE算法进行求解,得出蒸发器内的温度分布及由于侧壁效应对多孔芯传热传质与传热极限的影响,同时提出小型平板CPL系统存在侧壁效应传热极限,它是影响系统最大传热量的一个重要极限,在设计小型平板CPL必须予以考虑。     

The radiation situation in space and its modification by geomagnetic field and shielding.

The fluxes of the nuclear component of the galactic cosmic radiation are discussed in terms of energy spectra for the different elements. Influences of shielding by the earth's magnetic field on these spectra are described. Then energy spectra behind absorbing matter are calculated considering energy loss and fragmentation. Based on these energy spectra LET-spectra are calculated. The form of the LET-spectra and their dependence on the composition of the shielding material are discussed. For LET-spectra measured by different detectors the restricted energy losses are converted to LETinfinity. in water. After this it is possible to compare the results of different experiments with each other and with calculated LET-spectra.     

Validation on MERSI/FY-3A precipitable water vapor product

The precipitable water vapor is one of the most active gases in the atmosphere which strongly affects the climate. China's second-generation polar orbit meteorological satellite FY-3A equipped with a Medium Resolution Spectral Imager (MERSI) is able to detect atmospheric water vapor. In this paper, water vapor data from AERONET, radiosonde and MODIS were used to validate the accuracy of the MERSI water vapor product in the different seasons and climatic regions of East Asia. The results show that the values of MERSI water vapor product are relatively lower than that of the other instruments and its accuracy is generally lower. The mean bias (MB) was ?0.8 to ?12.7?mm, the root mean square error (RMSE) was 2.2–17.0?mm, and the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) varied from 31.8% to 44.1%. On the spatial variation, the accuracy of MERSI water vapor product in a descending order was from North China, West China, Japan -Korea, East China, to South China, while the seasonal variation of accuracy was the best for winter, followed by spring, then in autumn and the lowest in summer. It was found that the errors of MERSI water vapor product was mainly due to the low accuracy of radiation calibration of the MERSI absorption channel, along with the inaccurate look-up table of apparent reflectance and water vapor within the water vapor retrieved algorithm. In addition, the surface reflectance, the mixed pixels of image cloud, the humidity and temperature of atmospheric vertical profile and the haze were also found to have affected the accuracy of MERSI water vapor product.     

Wireless Sensor Networks – A potential tool to probe for water on Moon

A Wireless Sensor Network for in situ probing of lunar water/ice is proposed. The mission scenario in single and multi-tier architectures for probing water in a permanently shadowed region of the Moon and different scenarios of exploration are discussed. The ideas presented in the paper are a positive assertion of feasibility for the sensor node hardware, given current levels of technological advancements.     

Integration of waste processing and biomass production systems as part of the KSC Breadboard project.

After initial emphasis on large-scale baseline crop tests, the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Breadboard project has begun to evaluate long-term operation of the biomass production system with increasing material closure. Our goal is to define the minimum biological processing necessary to make waste streams compatible with plant growth in hydroponic systems, thereby recycling nutrients into plant biomass and recovering water via atmospheric condensate. Initial small and intermediate-scale studies focused on the recycling of nutrients contained in inedible plant biomass. Studies conducted between 1989-1992 indicated that the majority of nutrients could be rapidly solubilized in water, but the direct use of this crop "leachate" was deleterious to plant growth due to the presence of soluble organic compounds. Subsequent studies at both the intermediate scale and in the large-scale Biomass Production Chamber (BPC) have indicated that aerobic microbiological processing of crop residue prior to incorporation into recirculating hydroponic solutions eliminated any phytotoxic effect, even when the majority of the plant nutrient demand was provided from recycled biomass during long term studies (i.e. up to 418 days). Current and future studies are focused on optimizing biological processing of both plant and human waste streams.     

Water surface temperature estimation from Landsat 7 ETM+ thermal infrared data using the generalized single-channel method: Case study of Embalse del Río Tercero (Córdoba,Argentina)

Monitoring of warm distribution in water is fundamental to understand the performance and functioning of reservoirs and lakes. Surface water temperature is a key parameter in the physics of aquatic systems processes since it is closely related to the energy fluxes through the water–atmosphere interface. Remote sensing applied to water quality studies in inland waterbodies is a powerful tool that can provide additional information difficult to achieve by other means. The combination of good real-time coverage, spatial resolution and free availability of data makes Landsat system a proper alternative. Many papers have developed algorithms to retrieve surface temperature (principally, land surface temperature) from at-sensor and surface emissivity data. The aim of this study is to apply the single-channel generalized method (SCGM) developed by Jiménez-Muñoz and Sobrino (2003) for the estimation of water surface temperature from Landsat 7 ETM+ thermal bands. We consider a constant water emissivity value (0.9885) and we compare the results with radiative transfer classic method (RTM).     

Global monitoring of tropospheric water vapor with GPS radio occultation aboard CHAMP

The global positioning system radio occultation (GPS RO) technique provides a powerful tool for atmospheric sounding which requires no calibration, is not affected by clouds, aerosols or precipitation, and provides an almost uniform global coverage. The paper deals with application of GPS RO measurements from CHAllenging Minisatellite Payload (CHAMP) for the retrieval of tropospheric water vapor profiles. CHAMP RO data are available since 2001 with up to 200 high resolution atmospheric profiles per day. We introduce a new direct method for water vapor retrieval from GPS RO data. Additionally, a 1Dvar algorithm is used for this purpose. The so derived CHAMP water vapor profiles are validated with radiosonde data on a global scale. Here, both methods come to statistically comparable results revealing a negative bias of less than 0.1 g/kg and a standard deviation of less than 1 g/kg specific humidity in the mid troposphere. Potentials of CHAMP RO retrievals for monitoring the mean tropospheric water vapor distribution on a global scale are presented.