The ASTROCULTURE(TM) flight experiment series, validating technologies for growing plants in space.

A flight experiment, ASTROCULTURE(TM)-1 (ASC-1), to evaluate the operational characteristics and hardware performance of a porous tube nutrient delivery system (PTNDS) was flown on STS-50 as part of the U.S. Microgravity Laboratory-1 mission, 25 June to 9 July, 1992. This experiment is the first in a series of planned ASTROCULTURE(TM) flights to validate the performance of subsystems required to grow plants in microgravity environments. Results indicated that the PTNDS was capable of supplying water and nutrients to plants in microgravity and that its performance was similar in microgravity to that in 1g on Earth. The data demonstrated that water transfer rates through a rooting matrix are a function of pore size of the tubes, the degree of negative pressure on the 'supply' fluid, and the pressure differential between the 'supply' and 'recovery' fluid loops. A slightly greater transfer rate was seen in microgravity than in 1g, but differences were likely related to the presence of hydrostatic pressure effects at 1g. Thus, this system can be used to support plant growth in microgravity or in partial gravity as on a lunar or Mars base. Additional subsystems to be evaluated in the ASTROCULTURE(TM) flight series of experiments include lighting, humidity control and condensate recovery, temperature control, nutrient composition control, CO2 and O2 control, and gaseous contaminant control.     

ASTROCULTURE (TM) root metabolism and cytochemical analysis.

Physiology of the root system is dependent upon oxygen availability and tissue respiration. During hypoxia nutrient and water acquisition may be inhibited, thus affecting the overall biochemical and physiological status of the plant. For the Astroculture (TM) plant growth hardware, the availability of oxygen in the root zone was measured by examining the changes in alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) activity within the root tissue. ADH activity is a sensitive biochemical indicator of hypoxic conditions in plants and was measured in both spaceflight and control roots. In addition to the biochemical enzyme assays, localization of ADH in the root tissue was examined cytochemically. The results of these analyses showed that ADH activity increased significantly as a result of spaceflight exposure. Enzyme activity increased 248% to 304% in dwarf wheat when compared with the ground controls and Brassica showed increases between 334% and 579% when compared with day zero controls. Cytochemical staining revealed no differences in ADH tissue localization in any of the dwarf wheat treatments. These results show the importance of considering root system oxygenation in designing and building nutrient delivery hardware for spaceflight plant cultivation and confirm previous reports of an ADH response associated with spaceflight exposure.     

First results of a stratospheric experiment using a montgolfiere infra-rouge (MIR)

An original stratospheric experiment in the tropics has been performed on board the new long duration balloon system developped by the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales in France. The experiment together with the performances reached in flight are presented.     

Results of time-resolved radiation exposure measurements made during U.S. Shuttle missions with a tissue equivalent proportional counter.

Time-resolved radiation exposure measurements inside the crew compartment have been made during recent Shuttle missions with the USAF Radiation Monitoring Equipment-III (RME-III), a portable four-channel tissue equivalent proportional counter. Results from the first six missions are presented and discussed. The missions had orbital inclinations ranging from 28.5 degrees to 57 degrees, and altitudes from 200-600 km. Dose equivalent rates ranged from 40-5300 micro Sv/dy. The RME-III measurements are in good agreement with other dosimetry measurements made aboard the vehicle. Measurements indicate that medium- and high-LET particles contribute less than 2% of the particle fluence for all missions, but up to 50% of the dose equivalent, depending on the spacecraft's altitude and orbital inclination. Iso-dose rate contours have been developed from measurements made during the STS-28 mission. The drift rate of the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) is estimated to be 0.49 degrees W/yr and 0.12 degrees N/yr. The calculated trapped proton and Galactic Cosmic Radiation (GCR) dose for the STS-28 mission were significantly lower than the measured values.     

Description, analysis and impact of major solar activity during recent U.S. Shuttle missions.

Since STS-26, three large solar events have occurred during Shuttle missions; a geomagnetic storm during STS-29 and solar particle events (SPEs) during STS-28 and -34. The maximum dose to a crew attributed to an SPE was estimated to be 30 microGy (70 microSv). Time-resolved dosimetry measurements of the SPE dose during STS-28 were made using the Air Force Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME)-III. Comparison of calculated and measured dose demonstrated a discrepancy, possibly a result of deficiencies in the geomagnetic cutoff model used. This experience demonstrates that dose from an SPE is strongly dependent on numerous factors such as orbit inclination, SPE start time, spectral parameters and geomagnetic field conditions; the exact combination of these factors is fortuitous. New sources of data and procedures are being investigated, including real-time tracking of auroral oval positions or determination of particle cutoff latitudes, for incorporation into operational Shuttle radiation support practices.     

Study of the radiation environment on MIR space station with SILEYE-2 experiment.

In this work we present preliminary results of nuclear composition measurements on board space station MIR obtained with SILEYE-2 particle telescope. SILEYE-2 was placed on MIR in 1997 and has been working since then. It consists of an array of 6 active silicon strip detectors which allow nuclear and energetic identification of cosmic rays in the energy range between approximately 30 and 200 MeV/n. The device is attached to an helmet and connected to an eye mask which shields the cosmonaut eyes from light and allow studies of the Light Flashes (LF) phenomenon. In addition to the study of the causes of LF, the device is used to perform real time long term radiation environment monitoring inside the MIR, performing measurements in solar quiet and active days.     

美国太空探索技术公司:商业公司书写业界传奇

美国太空探索技术公司是一家员工总数只有千余人的私营航天企业。自2002年建立至今八年多的时间内,该公司接连独立研制并成功发射了低成本的"猎鹰"1号和"猎鹰"9号运载火箭,赢得了美国航宇局的商业轨道运输服务合同,并有望     

Optimization of moisture content for wheat seedling germination in a cellulose acetate medium for a space flight experiment.

The Porous Tube Plant Nutrient Delivery System (PTPNDS), a hydrophilic, microporous ceramic tube hydroponic system designed for microgravity, will be tested in a middeck locker of the Space Shuttle. The flight experiment will focus on hardware operation and assess its ability to support seed germination and early seedling growth in microgravity. The water controlling system of the PTPNDS hardware has been successfully tested during the parabolic flight of the KC-135. One challenge to the development of the space flight experiment was to devise a method of holding seeds to the cylindrical porous tube. The seed-holder must provide water and air to the seed, absorb water from the porous tube, withstand sterilization, provide a clear path for shoots and roots to emerge, and be composed of flight qualified materials. In preparation for the flight experiment, a wheat seed-holder has been designed that utilizes a cellulose acetate plug to facilitate imbibition and to hold the wheat seeds in contact with the porous tube in the correct orientation during the vibration of launch and the microgravity environment of orbit. Germination and growth studies with wheat at a range of temperatures showed that optimal moisture was 78% (by weight) in the cellulose acetate seed holders. These and other design considerations are discussed.     

拉开外空采矿竞赛的序幕？-美国行星采矿立法的法律政策分析

2015年11月25日,美国通过了《2015外空资源探索和利用法》,为私人实体进行月球及行星采矿提供了法律依据,赋予了私人实体对其开采的任何小行星资源或外空资源的各项权利,包括占有、拥有、运输、使用和出售的权利。这一规定引起了国际社会的热议。在该法案起草、论证到通过的1年多时间里,国际空间法学界对其进行了多次讨论,以质疑声居多。虽然国际法没有明确的禁止规定,但大多数学者仍认为外空属于“公有区域”,任何国家和个人不得主张对外空包括其自然资源的所有权。     

The Rhesus monkey as a model for testing the immunological effects of space flight.

The Rhesus monkey has been proposed as a model for the effects of space flight on immunity. In order to determine the feasibility of the use of the Rhesus monkey as a model, we studied the use of Rhesus monkey cells for immunological procedures that have been shown to be affected by space flight in both rodents and humans. We have shown that both lymph node cells and peripheral blood leukocytes can be stained with monoclonal antibodies to detect the following surface markers: CD4, CD-8, Ia and surface immunoglobulin. Also, the level of Ia antigen expression was increased by treatment of the cells with human interferon-gamma. In addition, cells were induced to produce interferons and interleukins. Isolated neutrophils also demonstrated increased oxidative burst. These data indicate that the Rhesus monkey will be a useful model for space flight studies of immunity.     

美国商业航天发展分析

当前,美国商业航天正处于快速发展的新阶段,其业务范围正从传统的商业卫星发射、商业卫星应用,扩展到政府从私营企业购买商业发射服务和发展商业载人航天飞行等领域,以美国太空探索技术公司（SpaceX）、轨道科学公司（OSC,现更名为轨道-阿连特技术系统公司,简称轨道-ATK公司）、天空盒子成像公司（Skybox Imaging）等为代表的新兴航天企业快速崛起,以谷歌公司（Google）为代表的互联网巨头也开始进军航天。商业航天发展的新思维、新理念与新模式对传统航天产业产生了巨大冲击和影响。     

Simultaneous measurement of multiple radiation-induced protein expression profiles using the Luminex(TM) system.

Space flight results in the exposure of astronauts to a mixed field of radiation composed of energetic particles of varying energies, and biological indicators of space radiation exposure provides a better understanding of the associated long-term health risks. Current methods of biodosimetry have employed the use of cytogenetic analysis for biodosimetry, and more recently the advent of technological progression has led to advanced research in the use of genomic and proteomic expression profiling to simultaneously assess biomarkers of radiation exposure. We describe here the technical advantages of the Luminex(TM) 100 system relative to traditional methods and its potential as a tool to simultaneously profile multiple proteins induced by ionizing radiation. The development of such a bioassay would provide more relevant post-translational dynamics of stress response and will impart important implications in the advancement of space and other radiation contact monitoring.     

Solar cosmic rays as a specific source of radiation risk during piloted space flight.

Solar cosmic rays present one of several radiation sources that are unique to space flight. Under ground conditions the exposure to individuals has a controlled form and radiation risk occurs as stochastic radiobiological effects. Existence of solar cosmic rays in space leads to a stochastic mode of radiation environment as a result of which any radiobiological consequences of exposure to solar cosmic rays during the flight will be probabilistic values. In this case, the hazard of deterministic effects should also be expressed in radiation risk values. The main deterministic effect under space conditions is radiation sickness. The best dosimetric functional for its analysis is the blood forming organs dose equivalent but not an effective dose. In addition, the repair processes in red bone marrow affect strongly on the manifestation of this pathology and they must be taken into account for radiation risk assessment. A method for taking into account the mentioned above peculiarities for the solar cosmic rays radiation risk assessment during the interplanetary flights is given in the report. It is shown that radiation risk of deterministic effects defined, as the death probability caused by radiation sickness due to acute solar cosmic rays exposure, can be comparable to risk of stochastic effects. Its value decreases strongly because of the fractional mode of exposure during the orbital movement of the spacecraft. On the contrary, during the interplanetary flight, radiation risk of deterministic effects increases significantly because of the residual component of the blood forming organs dose from previous solar proton events. The noted quality of radiation responses must be taken into account for estimating radiation hazard in space.     

天军起步——评美国空军X-37空天飞机

美国空军多年以来一直希望成为一支全球空军,具有全球力量投送和打击能力。读者或许会奇怪,作为世界上最强大的美国空军,几乎是横行于全世界,想打败谁就能打败谁,怎么还不算全球空军呢?其实,美国的全球空军概念,是能随时要从美国本土起飞,或者把特种兵投放到世界上任何角落,或者把炸弹扔向任何目标,而不依赖任何海外机场。就人类当前的技术水平来说,想要实现这种能力,非空天飞机莫属。     

美国商业对地观测数据政策发展综述

商业化是美国国家航天政策中非常重要的一部分,对地观测商业化更是整个商业航天领域非常重要的部分,有着广阔的前景和广泛的应用。经过数次重大修改和不断的补充完善,美国商业对地观测数据政策已形成较为成熟的体系,为美国对地观测卫星应用和产业化发展提供了强有力的支持。     

From a lunar outpost to Mars: science, policy and the U.S. Space Exploration Initiative.

The U.S. Space Exploration Initiative (SEI) is aimed at the establishment of an outpost for humans on the Moon, followed by the human exploration of Mars. It also encompasses robotic missions to the Moon and Man that will precede and perhaps accompany human presence. Science plays a dual role in SEI. First, many scientific questions must be answered to insure the health and safety of human explorers. Second, scientific investigations will be among the central objectives of human explorers. A substantial body of U.S. policy on SEI has been announced by President Bush. Its implementation is coordinated by the U.S. National Space Council under the Chairmanship of Vice President Quayle. That policy directs the early focus of SEI to be on technology development, including the identification of "high leverage technologies," and the identification of alternative mission architectures. It also envisions international cooperation as an important beneficial aspect of SEI.     

An investigation of the solar cycle impact on the lower thermosphere O(S) nightglow emission as observed by WINDII/UARS

The yearly variation of the integrated emission rate of the O(¹S) nightglow in the lower thermosphere is studied and the solar cycle impact is examined from the observations of the Wind Imaging Interferometer (WINDII) operated on the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS). More than 300,000 volume emission rate profiles of the O(¹S) nightglow observed by WINDII for 40°S–40°N latitudes during November 1991–August 1997 over half of a solar cycle are utilized. These profiles are vertically integrated for the altitude range of 80–100 km and the equivalent column integrated emission rates are then zonally averaged for bins with 10° latitude and 3 month intervals. It is found that for each latitude the O(¹S) nightglow emission rate appears to increase with increasing solar F10.7 cm flux, following a linear relationship. This characterizes the solar cycle impact on the O(¹S) nightglow, while the solar influence is modulated by a seasonal variation. Based on these variations, an empirical formula is derived for predicting the three-month averages of the O(¹S) nightglow integrated emission rate. The standard error of the estimated values from the formula is smaller than 30 Rayleigh.     

Low energy ions in the heavy ions in space (HIIS) experiment on LDEF.

We present data from the Lexan top stacks in the Heavy Ions In Space (HIIS) experiment which was flown for six years (April 1984-Jan 1990) onboard the LDEF spacecraft in 28.5 degrees orbit at about 476 km altitude. HIIS was built of passive (i.e. no timing resolution) plastic track detectors which collected particles continuously over the entire mission. In this paper we present data on low energy heavy ions (10 < or = Z, 20MeV/nuc < E < 200 MeV/nuc). These ions are far below the geomagnetic cutoff for fully ionized ions in the LDEF orbit even after taking into account the severe cutoff suppression caused by occasional large geomagnetic storms during the LDEF mission. Our preliminary results indicate an unusual elemental composition of trapped particles in the inner magnetosphere during the LDEF mission, including both trapped anomalous cosmic ray species (Ne, Ar) and other elements (such as Mg and Fe) which are not found in the anomalous component of cosmic rays. The origin of the non-anomalous species is not understood, but they may be associated with the solar energetic particle events and geomagnetic disturbances of 1989.