India''s space policy : A developing country in the ‘Space Club’

Athough a poor nation with limited resources, India has spent large amounts of money on sophisticated space programme. It is pursuing a policy of using high technology to solve the country's social and economic problems, and at the same time to strengthen its international position. Satellite-aided communications, educational programmes, meteorology and resources survey and management are thus priority areas. This article examines the history and achievements of India's space programme, and considers the constraints faced and budget and staffing plans. Foreign policy and national security aspects are covered in detail, including the question of whether India's peaceful space policy can be put to military use.     

Consideration of space activities by the UN general assembly

The thirty-ninth session of the United Nations General Assembly affirmed ‘that complete and general disarmament warrants that outer space should be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and that it shall not become an arena for an arms race’.This text appears in the first of two important resolutions concerning outer space adopted by the General Assembly during its last session. Also in the first resolution, entitled ‘Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space’ (A/39/59 of 12 December 1984), the Assembly called upon all states, particularly those with major space capabilities, to contribute actively to the objective of the peaceful uses of outer space and to take immediate measures to prevent an arms race in outer space in the interest of maintaining international peace and security and promoting international cooperation and understanding.     

ESA strategic planning for space exploration

The European Space Agency (ESA) is pursuing an independent strategic planning process for consolidating a destination driven (LEO, Moon, Mars) space exploration strategy. ESA's space exploration strategy is driven by the goals to maximise knowledge gain and to contribute to economic growth. International cooperation is a key pillar of ESA's strategy as it is considered both, an enabler for achieving common goals and a benefit, opening new perspective for addressing future challenges. The achievement of ESA's space exploration strategy is enabled through international partnerships. The interagency coordination process conducted within the framework of the International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG) plays an important role in laying the foundations for future partnerships. It has achieved so far the development of a common vision for space exploration, a common plan for implementing the vision in the form of the Global Exploration Roadmap, as well as a common approach for articulating the value of global space exploration. ESA has been a strong promoter and supporter of the interagency coordination process conducted within ISECG and thanks to its unique expertise in international cooperation the Agency has contributed to its success.     

Europe needs a space policy

This article argues that growing space activities are essential to maintain European high-technology ambitions. The approval of ESA's future programme at the ministers' meeting in late 1991 is regarded as an absolute minimum and the adoption of a collective European space policy setting European autonomy, international cooperation, competitiveness and equitable market conditions is urgently required. The article further argues that a power structure to define, adopt and update such a policy and monitor its implementation must be established. It should be based on ESA, with other organizations concerned with space playing advisory roles.     

Developments in space activities in Poland

Poland has a long-standing tradition in space activities. Polish institutions have participated as co-investigators in almost all European Space Agency (ESA) science projects, as well as on many other missions. However, the first Polish satellite (PW-SAT) was only launched in 2012. Poland was one of the first Eastern European countries to conclude a Cooperation Agreement with ESA in the peaceful use of outer space; it was signed in 1994 and followed by a second in January 2002. Negotiations on Polish membership in the ESA were started in autumn of 2011, and ended in April 2012. Following ratification of the agreement, Poland officially became the 20th Member State of ESA on 19 November 2012. This article examines how Poland is setting its way as a space nation. It describes recent developments in the Polish space programme, including the road to Poland's full membership in the European Space Agency.     

International relations in space: A US view

A Task Force of the NASA Advisory Council was recently asked to assess whether the changing global context for space activities required any adjustments in NASA's approach to its international activities. This article presents the Task Force's major findings and conclusions. The USA must reinvigorate its civil space programme, with responsibility clearly assigned, and long-term goals and directions established. Through cooperation, it must bring other nations to share those goals and move in the same directions.     

Russia's resurgence: Prospects for space policy and international cooperation

Based on a joint study initiated in 2007–2008 by the Policy planning staff (CAP) of the French Foreign Ministry and the space agency CNES, which brought together experts, researchers and industry insiders, this article considers the factors behind Russia's recent resurgence and the possible revival of its space programme. It examines how far the latter will require international cooperation in order to progress further and discusses likely areas of profitable collaboration with Europe in general and France in particular, given that country's long history of space cooperation with Russia and the need in the mid-term future to share the burden of developing ambitious new space programs. While there is in principle much potential, especially in the area of space transportation, there are also numerous challenges and uncertainties. How these are resolved will affect the level and success of any cooperative efforts of both sides.     

Space development: social and political implications

Far-reaching social and political issues are implicit in any discussion of large-scale space development. This Viewpoint argues that the evolution of appropriate political institutions to deal with these issues is likely to be at least as important as the development of new technology. If large-scale space development is to take place, global international cooperation will be essential and such cooperation will have to be underpinned by enhanced institutional and legal structures. In the shorter term, an appropriate institutional response may be the creation of a World Space Agency. However, in the longer term, we should probably view a world space programme as falling within that class of global concerns that would be most appropriately managed by a federal world government.     

The history of international space programmes

In reviewing the past 50 years of international space cooperation, much of it stunningly successful, some bedevilled by difficulties, the author notes that ‘space’ can now only be understood as a complex area of widely varied sectors, further complicated by different funding sources and dual-use activities. While scientists were the initial drivers of cooperation, their flourishing programmes risk losing government funding to the grandiose manned missions being envisaged. Such funding is strongly reliant on political will rather than on the merits of any particular programme, something that, until recently with the GEO, has been particularly evident in earth observations. A major problem has been countries’ efforts to secure some minor national advantage at the expense of the bigger picture. But for international space cooperation truly to benefit humanity, a greater acceptance of working for the common good and more efficient programme management (no duplication) will be required.     

Reflections on the quest for international cooperation

Changed political objectives, straitened economic circumstances and an altered balance of capability and expertise in space endeavours have together produced more discussion of the need for international cooperation than ever before, but the meaning of the term has subtly shifted. Insisting on US ‘leadership’ is self-defeating; what is instead firmly desired by the USA's potential partners is a balanced relationship in which each nation makes an identifiable contribution and takes the lead in at least one of a package of projects. If this is going to happen, there must be an international forum or framework in which projects can be discussed and agreed. This in turn requires initiative at governmental level.     

Estonian space policy and governance in the international space community

Despite the global financial crisis, which dominated 2008 and the first half of 2009, Estonia has decided to invest in a space programme. Estonia has extensive experience in the field of astrophysics and has developed capacities in various areas of remote sensing applications. It is on its way to becoming an active ESA partner. This article examines how Estonia is setting its way as a space nation and describes the new context and the role that various bodies are playing in the process. The paper describes the vision and strategy for space activities in the country. An overview of the possible measures to be taken to support the enterprises and scientific institutions with the highest potential for space cooperation is discussed, as are various risks in making progress in the space field, and measures for overcoming these.     

The role of the united nations in promoting international cooperation in peaceful uses of outer space

The Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) was established in 1959 by the United Nations General Assembly in order to review and foster international cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space and to consider legal issues arising from the exploration of outer space. Since its establishment, the Committee has addressed such issues as benefits from space activities, the definition and delimitation of outer space and the use of the geostationary orbit, implications of remote sensing, space sciences, space-based communications, navigation and meteorological systems, as well as use of nuclear power sources in outer space, space debris and spin-off benefits of space technology. At its session in 1996, a symposium on the ‘Utilization of micro- and small satellites for the expansion of low-cost space activities, taking into particular account the needs of developing countries’ was organized by COSPAR and IAF to complement discussions on this theme. It was noted at the symposium that the increasing number of small satellites, in particular the proposed introduction of multi-satellite ‘constellations’ at low orbits, would result in concentrations of satellite mass at certain regions of space around the Earth. Special provisions would be needed to minimize the probability of satellite breakups and collisions which might create more space debris and compromise the future of spaceflight.     

Impact of unification on German space activities

1991 is one of the most decisive years in the history of German space activities. Not only do major policy decisions have to be taken concerning the continuation of the European programmes Hermes and Columbus — which, due to the heavy involvement of Germany in international cooperation, strongly affect its space policy — but one year after the unification of Germany the country is about to set up its new space programme. This is in fact a ‘new’ programme because for the first time it includes all space activities of the unified Germany.     

Arms control and disarmament in space: the rough road to Vienna 1984: Part I

This article examines the international legal and diplomatic questions relating to arms control and disarmament, focusing on space-based activities. These relate importantly to the development of anti-satellite satellites (ASATs) and ballistic missile defence systems (BMDs). Part I of the article examines the goal of ‘peaceful uses’ of outer space as elaborated in national policies and in international fora, the debate that has has taken place at the international level over the meaning and definition of peaceful purposes, legal manoeuvres, particularly in the UN, and US responses, and recent Soviet initiatives relating to space militarization. Part II will appear in the next issue, and will consider the US Presidential-Congressional dialogue on these questions and recent Presidential initiatives.     

Competing for a future in space: NASA and the Department of Defense

Although the 1958 Space Act stressed the civilian nature of the US space programme, the military space budget has grown to over twice the size of NASA's. Military influence on US space policy has grown accordingly. NASA has failed in articulating a sense of direction and purpose for the civilian space programme justifying sustained and adequate support. What matters most for a reinvigorated NASA is the level of commitment the nation is prepared to make, and in today's political climate greater spending on a civilian space programme would be unpopular. The USA looks likely to continue to fall behind in the international competition for space leadership.     

国外空间环境试验与探测技术现状与发展趋势

文章分析了与航天器飞行有关的4类空间环境的特点;介绍了国外空间环境试验技术的现状与发展概况。文章还重点分析了未来空间环境探测的发展趋势:加强了对空间环境动态变化的探测;将星座探测摆在重要地位;以地球轨道卫星为发展的主流;利用卫星加大对空间环境探测的力度;加强国际合作。国外空间环境探测的经验表明,我国应重视发展地球轨道探测卫星,尽快提高卫星有效载荷的水平。     

History and impact of the 1996 UN declaration on ‘space benefits’

At its 1996/1997 session, the UN General Assembly adopted by consensus Resolution 51/122, containing a Declaration on international cooperation in space. This Declaration finalizes the agenda item which has become known as ‘Space Benefits’ in the UNCOPUOS Legal Subcommittee. It provides an authoritative interpretation of the cooperation principle in Article I of the Outer Space Treaty and should thereby put an end to North-South confrontation over the question of shaping the international order for space activities. This article traces the history of the run-up to adoption of the Resolution, analyses how it came to be accepted by all sides and examines its likely impact.     

The next giant leap in space

Over the past year, the United Nations Association of the USA (UNA) has conducted a massive programme aimed at involving US citizens directly in shaping US space policy. From early January to mid-May of 1986, thousands of people joined forces in some 90 cities and towns across the USA to examine the prospects for international cooperation and the impact of existing and potential military space activities on civilian cooperation.     

Power—industry orbital complexes of the 21st century

Soviet scientist, Leonid Leskov, discusses the state of the art and future projections of the Soviet and global industrialization of space. International cooperation for peaceful use of space are required if the huge benefits of industrialization, such as solar power stations, are to be realized.     

A new setting for international space cooperation?

The year 2004 could be seen as the turning point for the realignment of international space cooperation for the 21st century. At the very core of this readjustment, the US space exploration initiative strives to define a new scheme for such a broad array of aspects as international scientific cooperation, the role of the space industry and the organizational framework for international space applications. This paper argues that the success of this new outline of international space cooperation depends on several conditions. First, the US initiative needs to demonstrate its long-term continuity and reliability for international partners, which will depend to no small degree on the future of the ISS and its utilization for international research. Second, international cooperation between industrial partners will continue to need political frameworks and depend on a balanced handling of know-how partnerships. Third, cooperation in space applications will need a truly international structure to further its global acceptance and outreach.