Effect of liquid bridge form on oscillatory thermocapillary convection under 1 g and μg conditions

This study analyses the effect of temperature difference between hot and cool disk (ΔT), and non-dimensional liquid bridge volume (V/V_o) on the transition process from steady thermocapillary convection to periodic or chaotic thermocapillary convection in a liquid bridge modeled after the floating zone method under normal gravity and microgravity conditions. From normal gravity and drop shaft experiments, the difference of the regime of the steady state and the oscillatory state was clarified on the ΔT−V/V_o plane under 1 g and μg conditions. A gap or stability region was observed in the specific V/V_o range under 1 g conditions. In the gap or stable region, after the gravity changed from 1 g to μg conditions, the temperature signals showed oscillation. From these results, the critical temperature difference under the μg conditions appeared to be smaller than that under the 1 g conditions. Temperature signals were defined as 6 different types of states. The various temperature oscillatory state regimes were obtained on a ΔT−V/V_o plane under 1 g and μg conditions. Under μg conditions, in these experimental conditions, all temperature oscillatory states exhibited only the Periodic state.     

Experiments and appropriate facilities for plant physiology research in space.

Light is a very essential parameter in a plant's life. Changing the quality and/or quantity of illumination will not only determine the further development (photomorphogenesis), but also effect spontaneous responses like curvatures (phototropism). But there are several still unknown links in the signal transduction chain from the perception of the light signals to the terminal response. It is known from ground-based experiments, that part of this signal transduction path is congruous with that of gravitational signals. Biosample is a technology development programme, which enables sophisticated experiments with whole plants in a microgravity environment. It allows complex sequences of gravitational- and light-stimuli with simultaneous recording of the plant's response (e.g. curvature of the stem) by video. This facility in union with new genetic mutants, which are less- or insensitive to light, gravity or both, are convenient tools for progress in plant physiology research.     

On the influence of altered gravity on the growth of fish inner ear otoliths

Inner ear stones (otoliths) of developing cichlid fish (Oreochromis mossambicus) were marked with the calcium tracer alizarin-complexone (AC) at 1g-earth gravity before and after a long-term (20 days) stay of the animals at moderate hypergravity conditions (3g; centrifuge). AC deposition at the otoliths resulted in two fluorescence bands, which enclosed the area grown during exposure to altered gravity. This area was measured with regard to size and asymmetry (size difference between the left and the right stones).

Both utricular and saccular otoliths (lapilli and sagittae, respectively) were significantly smaller after hyper-g exposure as compared to parallely raised 1g-control specimens. The asymmetry concerning the lapilli was pronouncedly decreased in comparison to the 1g-controls. These findings suggest, that the growth and the development of bilateral asymmetry of otoliths is guided by the environmental gravity vector.

Some of the hyper-g animals revealed a kinetotic behaviour at the transfer from hyper-g to normal 1g-earth gravity conditions, which was qualitatively similar to the behaviour observed in previous experiments at the transfer from 1g to microgravity in the course of parabolic aircraft flights. The lapillar asymmetry of kinetotic samples was found to be significantly higher than that of normally behaving experimental specimens. This result supports an earlier theoretical concept, according to which human static space sickness might be based on asymmetric utricular otoliths.     

Life science experiments during the German-Russian MIR '97 mission

Manned spaceflight has been an important element of the German space program over the last decades. This is demonstrated by the nationally managed space missions Spacelab D-l (1985), D-2 (1993), and MIR '92 as well as by the participation in the 1st Spacelab mission FSLP (1983), the NASA missions IML-1 (1992) and IML-2 (1994), as well as in the ESA missions EUROMIR '94 and '95. On February 12th, this year, the German cosmonaut Reinhold Ewald was launched together with his Russian colleagues Wasilij Zibliew and Alexander Lasudkin onboard of a Soyuz spacecraft for another stay of a German cosmonaut onboard of the Russian Space Station MIR. This mission--the so-called German/Russian MIR '97--was, of course, another cornerstone with regard to the cooperation between Russian and German space organizations. The cooperation in the area of manned missions began 1978 with the flight of the German cosmonaut Sigmund Jahn onboard of Salyut 6, at that time a cooperation between the Soviet Union and the German Democratic Republic in the frame of the Interkosmos Program. In March 1992, it was followed by the flight of Klaus Dietrich Flade with his stay onboard of MIR. After two further successful ESA missions, EUROMIR '94 and '95 with the two German cosmonauts Ulf Merbold and Thomas Reiter and with a marked contribution of German scientists, the decision was taken to perform another German/Russian MIR mission, the so-called MIR '97. In Germany, MIR'97 was managed and performed in a joint effort between several partners. DARA, the German Space Agency, was responsible for the overall program and project management, while DLR, the German Aerospace Research Establishment, was responsible for the cosmonaut training, for medical operations, for the mission control at GSOC in Oberpfaffenhofen as well as for user support.     

Internal reference frames for representation and storage of visual information: the role of gravity.

Experimental studies of visual mechanisms suggests that the CNS represents image information with respect to preferred horizontal and vertical axes, as shown by a phenomenon known as the "oblique effect". In the current study we used this effect to evaluate the influence of gravity on the representation and storage of visual orientation information. Subjects performed a psychophysical task in which a visually-presented stimulus line was aligned with the remembered orientation of a reference stimulus line presented moments before. The experiments were made on 5 cosmonauts during orbital space flight and additionally on 13 subjects in conditions of normal gravity with a tilting chair. Data were analyzed with respect to response variability and timing. On earth, these measurements for this task show a distinct preference for horizontally and vertically oriented stimuli when the body and gravitational axes were aligned. This preference was markedly decreased or disappeared when the body axis was tilted with respect to gravity; this effect was not connected with ocular counter-rolling nor could we find a preference of any other intermediate axis between the gravity and body aligned axes. On the other hand, the preference for vertical and horizontal axes was maintained for tests performed in microgravity over the course of a 6 month flight, starting from flight day 6. We concluded that subjects normally process visual orientation information in a multi-modal reference frame that combines both proprioceptive and gravitational cues when both are available, but that a proprioceptive reference frame is sufficient for this task in the absence of gravity after a short period of adaptation. Some of the results from this study have been previously published in a preliminary report. Grant numbers: 99-04-48450.     

T cell regulation in microgravity – The current knowledge from in vitro experiments conducted in space,parabolic flights and ground-based facilities

Dating back to the Apollo and Skylab missions, it has been reported that astronauts suffered from bacterial and viral infections during space flight or after returning to Earth. Blood analyses revealed strongly reduced capability of human lymphocytes to become active upon mitogenic stimulation. Since then, a large number of in vitro studies on human immune cells have been conducted in space, in parabolic flights, and in ground-based facilities. It became obvious that microgravity affects cell morphology and important cellular functions. Observed changes include cell proliferation, the cytoskeleton, signal transduction and gene expression. This review gives an overview of the current knowledge of T cell regulation under altered gravity conditions obtained by in vitro studies with special emphasis on the cell culture conditions used. We propose that future in vitro experiments should follow rigorous standardized cell culture conditions, which allows better comparison of the results obtained in different flight- and ground-based experiment platforms.     

The loss of stability in ground based experiments in liquid bridges

In this study our primary goal is to investigate the loss of stability of the steady convection in deformable liquid bridges. Definitely, the deformation plays an important role in the transition process from the steady axi-symmetric 2-D basic state to the 3-D periodical one. As it was shown experimentally by many researchers, the critical Marangoni number is very sensitive to the volume of liquid.

It seems to be proved^1–4, that the critical wave number for high Prandtl fluids (for example, silicone oil of different viscosities. Pr > 50) is m = 1 for aspect ratios Γ = height/radius ≥ 1.0 regardless of the free surface shape. But the data from our last experiments show, that by changing surrounding conditions around the liquid bridge we can change the critical wave number. Particularly, by placing the liquid bridge of diameter 2r = 6mm into another cylindrical volume of the diameter 2R = 12mm kept at constant temperature, the critical mode is switched from m = 1 to m = 2.     

The pharao project: Towards a space clock using cold cs atoms

For several years, the “BNM-Laboratoire Primaire du Temps et des Fréquences” has worked on a cold atom frequency standard. With a cesium atomic fountain a resonance line width of 700 mHz has been obtained leading to a short-term stability of 2 × 10⁻¹³ τ^−1/2 down to 2 × 10⁻¹⁵ at 10⁴ s. A first evaluation of the fountain accuracy has been performed resulting in an accuracy of 3 × 10⁻¹⁵, three times better than previously achieved with thermal beams frequency standards. In the atomic fountain, gravity limits the interaction time to ˜1 s, hence the resonance line width to ˜0.5 Hz. A factor of 10 reduction in the line width could be obtained in a micro-gravity environment. The “Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales” (the French space agency), the “BNM-Laboratoire Primaire du Temps et des Fréquences”, the “Laboratoire de l'Horloge Atomique” and the “Laboratoire Kastler Brossel” have set up a collaboration to investigate a space frequency standard using cold atoms: the PHARAO project. A microgravity prototype has been constructed and operated first in the reduced gravity of aircraft parabolic flights in May 1997. It is designed as a transportable frequency standard. The PHARAO frequency standard could be a key element in future space missions in fundamental physics such as SORT (solar orbit relativity test), detection of gravitational waves, or for the realization of a global time scale and a new generation of positioning system.     

Design, performance, and experiment capabilities of the AGHF: ESA''s advanced gradient furnace for spacelab

AGHF is a Bridgman Furnace Facility for directional solidification experiments in microgravity environment with very well controlled heater temperatures up to 1400°C. A laboratory model and an engineering model exist, the flight model will be built at the end of 1991. The furnace uses heater elements made of W-Re wire wound on a solid TZM heat diffuser, diffuser temperature control by Pt/PtRh thermocouples to ±0.2 K, and a water cooled cooling zone regulated by a thermostatic valve to ±0.3 K. AGHF experiments use front loaded cartridges, which can use conductive coupling to the cooling zone by a liquid metal ring or radiative cooling. The laboratory model furnace, mounted in a dedicated vacuum chamber with peripherals controlled by a commercial computer, was intensively tested up to 1400°C, as specified for the AGHF by ESA, and at 1500°C in a life test under a technology development programme of ESA. Notable laboratory model results are gradients of 95 K/cm in solid Ni of 18 mm dia, with conductive cooling zone coupling by liquid metal, and 70 K/cm with radiative cooling in ZrO₂. EM test are not yet complete, but first tests indicate similar or better results, especially of gradient constancy vs pulling stroke over 140 mm. The first heater model sustained 400 h at 1000°C, 800 h at 1300°C, and 400 h at 1500°C.     

A new goldfish model to evaluate pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic effects of drugs used for motion sickness in different gravity loads.

This paper proposes a new goldfish model to predict pharmacodynamic/pharmacokinetic effects of drugs used to treat motion sickness administered in differing gravity loads. The assumption of these experiments is that the vestibular system is dominant in producing motion sickness and that the visual system is secondary or of small import in the production of motion sickness. Studies will evaluate the parameter of gravity and the contribution of vision to the role of the neurovestibular system in the initiation of motion sickness with and without pharmacologic agents. Promethazine will be studied first. A comparison of data obtained in different groups of goldfish will be done (normal vs. acutely and chronically bilaterally blinded vs. sham operated). Some fish will be bilaterally blinded 10 months prior to initiation of the experiment (designated the chronically bilaterally blinded group of goldfish) to evaluate the neuroplasticity of the nervous system and the associated return of neurovestibular function. Data will be obtained under differing gravity loads with and without a pharmacological agent for motion sickness. Experiments will differentiate pharmacological effects on vision vs. neurovestibular input to motion sickness. Comparison of data obtained in the normal fish and in acutely and chronically bilaterally blinded fish with those obtained in fish with intact and denervated otoliths will differentiate if the visual or neurovestibular system is dominant in response to altered gravity and/or drugs. Experiments will contribute to validation of the goldfish as a model for humans since plasticity of the central nervous system allows astronauts to adapt to the altered visual stimulus conditions of 0-g. Space motion sickness may occur until such an adaptation is achieved.     

Effect of weightlessness on sympathetic-adrenomedullary activity of rats.

Three cosmic experiments were performed in which rats spent 18-20 days in space on board the biosatellites "COSMOS 782", "COSMOS 936" and "COSMOS 1129". The following indicators of the sympathetic-adrenomedullary system (SAS) activity were measured: tissue and plasma catecholamines (CA), CA-synthesizing enzymes--tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), dopamine-beta-hydroxylase (DBH), phenylethanolamine-N-methyltransferase (PNMT)--as well as CA-degrading enzymes-monoamine oxidase (MAO) and catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT). Adrenal epinephrine (EPI) and norepinephrine (NE) as well as CA-synthesizing and degrading enzymes were not significantly changed in the animals after flight on COSMOS 782. On the other hand, a significant increase was found in heart CA, the indicator which is usually decreased after stress. 26 days after landing all values were at control levels. The results obtained, compared to our previous stress experiments on Earth, suggest that prolonged weightlessness does not appear to be a pronounced stressful stimulus for the SAS. Heart and plasma CA, mainly NE, were increased both in the group living in the state of weightlessness and the group living in a centrifuge and exposed to artificial gravitation 1 g (COSMOS 936), suggesting again that prolonged weightlessness is not an intensive stressful stimulus for the SAS. The animals exposed after space flight on COSMOS 1129 to repeated immobilization stress on Earth showed a significant decrease of adrenal EPI and an expressive increase of adrenal TH activity compared to stressed animals which were not in space. Thus, the results corroborate that prolonged state of weightlessness during space flight though not representing by itself an intensive stressful stimulus for the sympathetic-adrenomedullary system, was found to potentiate the response of "cosmic rats" to stress exposure after return to Earth.     

The properties of alamethicin incorporated into planar lipid bilayers under the influence of microgravity.

During evolution, life on earth had adapted to the gravity of 1g. Due to space flight, in the last decades the question arose what happens to the brain under microgravity on the molecular level. Ion channels among others are the molecular basis of brain function. Therefore, the investigation of ion channel function under microgravity seems to be a promising approach to gather knowledge on brain function during space flight. In a first step, the ion channel forming peptide Alamethicin was used as a model channel in an artificial membrane. It is well suitable for this kind of investigation, since its properties are well described under standard gravity. For that reason, changes due to microgravity can be detected easily. All experiments were performed in the German drop tower at ZARM-FAB, Bremen. A special set-up was constructed based on the bilayer technique introduced by Mueller and Rudin. All functions of this set-up can be observed and controlled remotely. In the first set of experiments, a dramatic change of electrical properties of Alamethicin under microgravity could be observed. Mainly, the pore frequency is significantly reduced.     

Readaptation of the vestibuloocular reflex to 1g-condition in immature lower vertebrates (Xenopus laevis) after micro- or hypergravity exposure

The effects of altered gravitational conditions (AGC) on the development of the static vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) and readaptation to 1g were investigated in the amphibian Xenopus laevis. Tadpoles were exposed to microgravity (μg) during the German Space Mission D-2 for 10 days, using the STATEX closed survival system, or to 3g for 9 days during earth-bound experiments. At the beginning of AGC, the tadpoles had not yet developed the static VOR.

The main results were: (i) Tadpoles with ug- or 3g-experience had a lower gain of the static VOR than the 1g-controls during the 2nd and 5th post-AGC days, (ii) Readaptation to response levels of 1g-reared controls usually occurred during the following weeks, except in slowly developing tadpoles with 3g-experience. Readaptation was less pronounced if, during the acute VOR test, tadpoles were rolled from the inclined to the normal posture than in the opposite test situation.

It is postulated that (i) gravity is necessarily involved in the development of the static VOR, but only during a period including the time before onset of the first behavioural response; and (ii) readaptation which is superimposed by the processes of VOR development depends on many factors including the velocity of development, the actual excitation level of the vestibular systems and the neuroplastic properties of its specific pathways.     

Individual differences in susceptibility to motion sickness among six Skylab astronauts

One of the Skylab experiments dealt with motion sickness, comparing susceptibility in the workshop aloft with susceptibility preflight and postflight. Tests were conducted on and after mission-day 8 (MD 8) by which time the astronauts were adapted to working conditions. Stressful accelerations were generated by requiring the astronauts, with eyes covered, to execute standardized head movements (front, back, left, and right) while in a chair that could be rotated at angular velocities up to 30 rpm. The selected endpoint was either 150 discrete head movements or a very mild level of motion sickness. In all rotation experiments aloft, the five astronauts tested (astronaut 1 did not participate) were virtually symptom free, thus demonstrating lower susceptibility aloft than in preflight and postflight tests on the ground when symptoms were always elicited. Inasmuch as the eyes were covered and the canalicular stimuli were the same aloft as on the ground, it would appear that lifting the stimulus to the otolith organs due to gravity was an important factor in reducing susceptibility to motion sickness even though the transient stimuli generated under the test conditions were substantial and abnormal in pattern. Some of the astronauts experienced motion sickness under operational conditions aloft or after splashdown, but attention is centered chiefly on symptoms manifested in zero gravity. None of the Skylab-II crew (astronauts 1 to 3) was motion sick aloft. Astronaut 6 of the Skylab-III crew (astronauts 4 to 6) experienced motion sickness within an hour after transition into orbit; this constitutes the earliest such diagnosis on record under orbital flight conditions. The eliciting stimuli were associated with head and body movements, and astronaut 6 obtained relief by avoiding such movements and by one dose of the drug combination 1-scopolamine 0.35 mg + d-amphetamine 5.0 mg. All three astronauts of Skylab-III experienced motion sickness in the workshop where astronaut 6 was most susceptible and astronaut 4, least susceptible. The higher susceptibility of SL-III crewmen in the workshop, as compared with SL-II crewmen, may be attributable to the fact that they were based in the command module less than one-third as long as SL-II crewmen. The unnatural movements, often resembling acrobatics, permitted in the open spaces of the workshop revealed the great potentialities in weightlessness for generating complex interactions of abnormal or unusual vestibular and visual stimuli. Symptoms were controlled by body restraint and by drugs, but high susceptibility to motion sickness persisted for 3 days and probably much longer; restoration was complete on MD 7. From the foregoing statements it is clear that on and after MD 8 the susceptibility of SL-II and SL-III crewmen to motion sickness under experimental conditions was indistinguishable. The role played by the acquisition of adaptation effects prior to MD 8 is less clear and is a subject to be discussed.     

Columbia and Challenger: organizational failure at NASA

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)—as the global leader in all areas of spaceflight and space science—is a unique organization in terms of size, mission, constraints, complexity and motivations. NASA's flagship endeavor—human spaceflight—is extremely risky and one of the most complicated tasks undertaken by man. It is well accepted that the tragic destruction of the Space Shuttle Challenger on 28 January 1986 was the result of organizational failure. The surprising disintegration of the Space Shuttle Columbia in February 2003—nearly 17 years to the day after Challenger—was a shocking reminder of how seemingly innocuous details play important roles in risky systems and organizations. NASA as an organization has changed considerably over the 42 years of its existence. If it is serious about minimizing failure and promoting its mission, perhaps the most intense period of organizational change lies in its immediate future. This paper outlines some of the critical features of NASA's organization and organizational change, namely path dependence and “normalization of deviance”. Subsequently, it reviews the rationale behind calling the Challenger tragedy an organizational failure. Finally, it argues that the recent Columbia accident displays characteristics of organizational failure and proposes recommendations for the future.     

The applications of lower power satellites for direct television broadcasting

The use of 12 GHz satellites for TV broadcasting directly to individual homes and small communities has been the subject of analysis and design study by groups in many countries. Implementation of the concept has been slow to follow because of the high satellite transmitter powers of from 100 to 450 W that have usually been determined to be necessary. Accumulated experience in Canada with 12 GHz operation and the evolution of technology are leading to changes in the concept of direct broadcasting such that lower power satellites may be capable of meeting the requirements.

Hermes, the Canadian/U.S. 12/14 GHz Communications Technology Satellite, has been in use for over 3 years in a program of experiments and measurements. This program has included an extensive six month experiment in direct broadcasting to 7 small communities. Experience with Hermes has shown that the signal strength is stable over long periods of time and that in Canada, significant precipitation attenuation at 12 GHz is of relatively short duration and typically occurs only during certain seasons. Operation with low propagation margins is feasible if some picture degradation and some outages at these times are acceptable. The frequency and duration of occurrence of outages can be controlled by the Earth station G/T which is cost sensitive. An individual may choose to use a low cost system with a small antenna and accept a degraded picture and outages at some times. A small community may choose to pay more for a larger antenna and lower noise receiver to achieve better performance.

Developments in technology are reducing the noise figure of mass-producible receivers from more than 6 dB to as low as 4 dB. Another technology contribution is the use of reduced bandwidth and other signal processing techniques in low-cost receivers. While use of such techniques may introduce distortions that would be unacceptable in rebroadcasting systems, there is little impact for individual and community reception. Use of both technologies reduce the required satellite EIRP or ground terminal G/T.

A field trial was begun in April 1979 to test these concepts for use in television program delivery. One hundred Earth stations capable of being tuned across a 500 MHz band and having antennas with diameters of either 1.2 m or 1.8 m are being installed for a test in Canada to receive TV signals from the 20 W transponders of ANIK-B (peak EIRP of 51 dBw) on an experimental basis. The acceptability of the video signals and the technical performance of the low-cost terminals in the bands of non-technical users are being evaluated.

The paper will summarize the concept of TV broadcasting with lower power satellites and describe the results to date of the ANIK-B field trials.     

Real-time studies on microalgae under microgravity

Using remote sensing technique, we investigated real-time Nostoc sphaeroides Kütz (Cyanobacterium) in Closed System under microgravity by SHENZHOU-2 spacecraft in January 2001. The experiments had 1 g centrifuges in space for control and ground control group experiments were also carried out in the same equipments and under the same controlled condition. The data about the population growth of Nostoc sp. of experiments and temperature changes of system were got from spacecraft every minute. From the data, we can find that population growth of Nostoc sp. in microgravity group was higher than that of other groups in space or on ground, even though both the control 1 g group in space and 1 g group on ground indicated same increasing characteristics in experiments. The growth rate of 1.4 g group (centrifuged group on ground) was also promoted during experiment. The temperature changes of systems are also affected by gravity and light. Some aspects about those differences were discussed. From the discussion of these results during experiment, it can be found that gravity is the major factor to lead to these changes.     

Recovery of long-wavelength mean gravity anomalies for the dedicated gravitational satellite (gravsat) mission

This paper describes a computer simulation study that was undertaken to determine how well long-wavelength variations in the Earth's gravitational field can be recovered using data from the Dedicated$\text{Grav}$itational $\text{Sat}$ellite (GRAVSAT) mission. This mission is to consist of two low altitude (160 km) spacecraft in essentially the same orbit but separated in phase by 100–300 km. Geodetic data are measurements of the relative range rate to an accuracy of about 1 μm/s at 4 sec intervals. Specifically, a Bayesian covariance simulation was used to investigate simultaneous recovery of the spacecraft ephemerides and a global distribution of 20° × 20° mean gravity anomaly blocks. Sources of errors considered were tracking station positions, gravitational constant, Earth body tides, tropospheric modeling and measurement noise. It should be noted that this simulation does not include as an error source variations in the gravity field that have a character different from what was modeled. Consequently, this study demonstrates the potential of the low-low system as configured to recover the long-wavelength variations in the gravity field.Using only one days worth of data, the mean of the standard deviations of the 162 20° × 20° gravity anomaly blocks is about 1 μgal. For a 6 month mission (assuming a reduction proportional to the square root of the data intervals) this projects to < 0.1 μgal. Because of the potential of increased measurement precision at shorter separation distances, and the relative insensitivity of the recovery process to separation distance, it should be possible to recover both long and short wavelength variations with a modest distribution of separation distances tailored primarily to the short wavelength recovery. Effects of the uncertainty in the gravitational constant and Love's numbers are negligible. In a simulation not reported on, increasing the altitude of the orbit to 200 km from 150 km, degraded, as expected, the accuracy of the recovered parameters by only 7%.     

Crickets in space.

"Crickets in Space" (CRISP) was a Neurolab experiment by which the balance between genetic programs and the gravitational environment for the development of a gravity sensitive neuronal system was studied. The model character of crickets was justified by their external gravity receptors, identified position-sensitive interneurons (PSI) and gravity-related compensatory head response, and by the specific relation of this behavior to neuronal activation systems. These advantages allowed us to study the impact of modified gravity on cellular processes in a complex organism. Eggs, 1st, 4th and 6th stage larvae of Acheta domesticus were used. Post-flight experiments revealed a low susceptibility of the behavior to microgravity and hypergravity (hg) while the physiology of the PSI was significantly affected. Immunocytological investigations revealed a stage-dependent sensitivity of thoracic GABAergic motoneurons to 3g-conditions concerning their soma sizes but not their topographical arrangement. Peptidergic neurons from cerebral sensorimotor centers revealed no significant modifications by microgravity. The contrary physiological and behavioral results indicate a facilitation of 1g-readaptation by accessory gravity. proprioceptive and visual sense organs. Absence of anatomical modifications point to an effective time window of microgravity or hg-exposure related to the period of neuronal proliferation. Grant numbers: 50WB9553-7.