Grazing-incidence telescopes for X-ray astronomy

We review the progress made at our laboratory over the past several years in developing grazing-incidence imaging X-ray optics. Mirrors, detection systems and dispersion techniques are discussed and experimental results are given. We discuss the application of two telescope systems to a number of experimental observations in X-ray astronomy.     

Techniques in balloon X-ray astronomy

The first balloon observation of a cosmic X-ray source, the Crab Nebula, was made in 1965, only three years after the initial discovery of such sources by rocket observations. Since then balloon data has provided much information on the positions, spectra, time variability and pulsed nature of localized sources, and on the spectrum and isotropy of diffuse galactic and universal components. Measurements are limited to energies above about 20 keV by atmospheric attenuation at 2–3 g cm ^–2 depth and to below several hundred keV by detector sensitivity. Detectors usually consist of large area NaI or CsI scintillation counters with anticoincidence collimators for rejection of charged particles and scattered X-rays. Proportional counters are occasionally used at lower energies and solid state detectors are used where extreme energy resolution is important. The instruments require a pointing capability on the order of 1.0 to 0.1°, depending on the collimator aperture. Digital data is either recorded on board or telemetered using a PCM technique. Exploratory work in the 0.2–10 MeV -ray range is starting now, and balloon observations may be expected to make important contributions in the near future.     

Wide angle X-ray optics for use in astronomy

Recently there was a suggestion in the literature to apply the principle of the lobster-eye to X-ray astronomy imaging (J.R.P. Angel, Ap. J. 233, 364, 1979). Our own suggestion for a wide angle X-ray telescope made earlier (W.K.H. Schmidt, Nucl. Instr. Meth.127, 285, 1975) is very similar to the above one. It consists of one or two sets of plane mirrors used in a grazing incidence configuration. The advantages of this type of X-ray optics over other systems for particular astronomical observations will be discussed.     

Cosmic X-ray observations performed with a gas scintillation spectrometer

Observations of the spectrum of CAS-A in the X-ray energy range 3 to 10 keV have been made using two gas scintillation proportional counters flown on an Aries rocket. Analysis of the data from the 180 second observation has resolved the emission features at 7 keV, which results from transitions in highly ionised iron.     

Laser Velocimeter for Wind Tunnel Measurements

Laser velocimetry is an optical technique used to make local measurements of mean velocity and turbulence in fluid flows without disturbing them. Laser velocimetry principles are briefly recalled; the optical and mechanical elements making up a velocimeter are described. Their purpose is to create two laser beams of equal intensity which are focused and crossed in a probe volume ? where a fringe pattern is formed; the light scattered by submicron particles passing through ? is collected by an optics rigidly connected to the emitting optics and focused on a photomultiplier. Among the various signal processing techniques, counters are now widely used, in connection with minicomputers. The different means used to determine the velocity sign and to measure simultaneously two components of the velocity are described; the simultaneous measurement of the three velocity components is more a matter of technology and cost than a theoretical problem. The modular operational velocimeter developed at ONERA is described; as examples of application, some typical results obtained in different aerodynamic flows are reported.     

X-ray variability of the bright BL Lac object PKS 2155-304

We have observed the BL Lac object PKS 2155-304 with the EXOSAT observatory and with IUE on 1983 October 31 and November 29. At the same time, optical photometry has been obtained. Variability has been observed both on a time scale of hours during the October 31 observation and on the time scale of one month. During the November 29 observation the source was 2 times brighter than in the previous observation, but no spectral modification is found between the two observations. The source has been also detected in the ME instrument and an energy spectrum has been fitted with a power law. A marginal detection in the ME Xenon counters suggests a flattening of the spectrum in the high energy band. These X-ray data extending over three decades in energy are compared with the simultaneous UV and optical observations.     

The Rosat mission

The primary scientific objective of the ROSAT mission is to perform the first all sky survey with an imaging X-ray telescope leading to an improvement in sensitivity by several orders of magnitude compared with previous surveys. Consequently a large number of new sources (> 10⁵) will be discovered and located with an accuracy of 1 arcmin. After completion of the survey which will take about half a year the instrument will be used for detailed observations of selected targets.The X-ray telescope consists of a fourfold nested Wolter type I mirror system with 80 cm aperture and 240 cm focal length, and three focal plane detectors. In the baseline version these will be imaging proportional counters (0.1 – 2 keV) providing a field of view of 2⁰ × 2⁰.     

The Medium Energy Instrument on Exosat

The Medium Energy Instrument on EXOSAT, although conceived as the main instrument for occultations, has been made sufficiently versatile to provide a significant advance over previous large area proportional counters when used for individual source studies of timing and spectra. The energy range is 1.2 to 50 keV, with E/E of 0.2 at 6 keV, sufficient to detect iron lines. The effective area of 1800 cm² and narrow field of view (3/4° × 3/4°) make it suitable for the detailed study of sources down to the 0.3 mCrab confusion limit. The unique facility provided by EXOSAT, allowing uninterrupted observations of X-ray sources for periods of up to 80 hours, backed up by a high capacity data link and on-board processing, enables timing studies to be performed over the range from milliseconds to days. Sophisticated background discrimination techniques giving a rejection efficiency of99% will control the background count rate to a suitably low value in the environment of the 200,000 km orbit.     

The near infrared high resolution imaging camera program of Beijing Observatory

This paper introduces the program of an adaptive optics system using an infrared camera for the near infrared observations based on the 2.16 m telescope of Beijing Observatory. This system consists of 3 parts: (1), the 2.16 m telescope; (2), the adaptive optics system that will be mounted at the coudé focus on an optical table. It will be used to remove the effect of atmospheric turbulence on the imaging observations; (3), the infrared camera with a 512×512 PtSi IR detector array.     

Position sensitive multiwire proportional counters for X-ray astronomy

The state of the art of the existing position sensitive multiwire proportional counters (PSMWPC) will be briefly reviewed. In particular taking into account the contribution these detectors have already made to our knowledge of the X-ray sky and the expected future steps that will only be possible with new detector development.Finally a new design of multiwire proportional counter will be described. The new generation of this kind of PSMWPC detectors, when operated with a modulating mask or a single grid rotation modulation collimator or, in the future, with a combination of these two techniques will provide images of the high-energy sky with an angular resolution of l min of arc.     

An IR,optical and X-ray study of the two state behaviour of GX 339-4

We review results of correlated IR, optical and X-ray observations of GX 339-4 made from March 1981 through May 1984. In the soft X-ray state, the object does not show outstanding optical and X-ray variability. Night-to-night smooth optical variations of 0.3 magnitudes were however present during one observing run. In contrast, the hard X-ray state is characterised by strong erratic optical and X-ray fluctuations on time scales from 20 milliseconds to seconds, as well as 7 to 20 second quasi-periodic oscillations. The optical counterpart appears much redder in the IR during the hard state. Particular attention is drawn to the hard to soft X-ray transition which occured in June 1981. The shape of the IR to X-ray energy distribution is discussed. The unusual features of this black hole candidate are examined in the framework of the current theories of accretion.Based partly on observations obtained at the European Southern Observatory, La Silla, Chile.     

飞针在线测试技术在电子模块测试中的应用

重点讨论了飞针在线测试技术在电子模块测试中的应用,并分别介绍了模拟器件和数字器件的测试方法。此技术能测试被测电子模块上各器件之间的物理连接,能测试模拟器件的值,同时也能测试数字器件的逻辑关系。此技术采用了基于PC机软件编程方法,使得测试程序化,并采用隔离技术将被测器件分离,提高测试精确度。灵活的软件编写也使得调试方式多样化。飞针测技术的使用能准确定位故障点,缩短调试周期,对小批量生产的电子模块调试有重要作用。     

The analysis of energy release in solar flares based on X-ray observations

Extended review of selected papers which deal with the problem of flare heating in solar coronal loops is presented. Discussed methods of the analysis of flare heating based on the X-ray observations have been worked out using the Palermo-Harvard hydrodynamic code. The case is presented when the assumption of the uniform heating across the loop is made. The existence of multiple elementary heating episodes is postulated as well. Next the possibility of the non-uniform heating across the loop is assumed and its manifestation in the X-ray observations is investigated. The application of proposed methods of the analysis to the observations of solar flares in X-rays is presented.     

Tenma observations of bright binary X-ray sources

Spectroscopic study of bright binary X-ray sources, performed with the gas scintillation proportional counters on board Tenma, is reviewed. Properties of an iron emission line from two classes of bright binary X-ray sources: X-ray pulsars and low-mass binary sources, are first presented. It is shown that a most likely candidate for the line emitting region is an Alfven shell in case of X-ray pulsars, whereas that of low mass binary sources is an outer accretion disk. Next, nature of the continuum emission from low-mass binary sources is consistently interpreted by a picture that an optically thick accretion disk extends down to very near the surface of a weakly magnetized neutron star. Origin of ultrasoft spectra of black hole candidate sources is also discussed.     

无铅BGA 焊接工艺方法研究

以焊接无铅BGA器件为目的,在三种主要焊接工艺方法中选择有铅焊料焊无铅BGA的工艺方法.通过调整回流焊炉各温区参数,得到适用于这种工艺方法的温度曲线,并通过外观、X射线、染色与渗透、剪切力、金相剖切对焊接质量进行分析.分析结果表明:该工艺方法焊接的无铅BGA焊点外观符合目检要求;X射线下没有发现焊点的明显缺陷;环境试验后,焊点的剪切力符合标准要求;染色试验未发现被染色的焊球;焊点的金相图显示结合处焊接良好,且满足合格焊点的金属间化合物厚度要求(0.5～50 μm),这种工艺方法能够较好的完成无铅BGA器件的焊接,有一定的应用价值.     

基于Otsu和FMM方法的风洞试验图像修复

各种光学测试技术在风洞试验中应用越来越广泛，图像中的破损或无关信息均会影响数据的处理和分析。以存在缺陷的风洞纹影图像为例，对数字图像修复技术进行了研究。根据缺陷离散分布、大小及形状各异，核心区域的灰度值较低以及边缘处灰度梯度变化较大等特点，将图像修复流程设计为确定待处理区域、缺陷识别和缺陷修复等3个步骤。前2个步骤使用Otsu算法进行图像的分割处理，然后使用快速行进方法（FMM）完成缺陷修复。经处理，纹影图像的缺陷被自动识别，并得到了减少或削弱，而且修复的信息客观合理。该方法可推广至其他光学测试技术的图像修复。     

普通单模光纤波片及偏振控制器的研究

本文介绍了基于普通单模光纤弯曲双折射效应而构成的光纤波片装置原理及设计方法。通过实验研究得到了对氦氖激光(波长0.6328μm)光纤半波片及1/4波片的最佳结构参数。这种光纤波片制作简单,尺寸小,是干涉型光纤传感器中进行偏振态控制以实现全光纤系统的重要元件。     

Characteristic γ- and X-radiation in the planetary system

Conclusions Passive observation of the naturally occurring γ-ray and X-ray from the planets is potentially an important technique for determining their gross chemical composition and on the basis of natural γ-radiation determining if the planetary surface is composed of differential material. If the planet is not covered by a thick atmosphere then it is possible to map the distribution of the most abundant elements on a scale of spatial resolution that is of the order of the altitude at which the observations are made. Initial observations carried out from lunar orbit have shown that the flux levels are approximately as expected and that the lunar surface is not characterized by any widespread distribution of acidic rocks in the region observed by the Luna 10 spacecraft.     

Perspective on ultracapacitors for electric vehicles

Recent advances in performance of chemical double layer capacitors (DLC) with aqueous and non-aqueous electrolytes have made it possible to seriously consider them for commercialization. Non-aqueous (organic) carbon based laboratory monopolar devices have recently met key U.S. Department of Energy (DoE) mid-term specifications (> 5 WNkg, >500 W/kg and >100,000 life cycles) for load-leveling electric vehicles batteries. All DLC technologies currently under development by DoE are discussed. Each technology has distinct advantages and none are clear winners at this time. A study has been completed by the General Electric Company on the interface electronics needed to best utilize the energy of capacitors for load-leveling batteries. System costs are presented based on this study, several battery technologies, and capacitor projections