美国科技文献资源体系建设及启示

介绍了美国联邦政府和国家航空般天局（NASA）科技文献信息资源体系建设，科技信息纲领的内涵、宗旨、任务、目标，实施科技信息纲领的工作程序、组织管理机构，科技信息产品和服务，以及美国国家技术信息服务中心（NTIS）和航空航天科技信息中心（CASI）的运作情况，论述了美国科技文献信息资源在推动科技进步中的作用，并在研究分析的基础上给出了结论。     

Advanced flight computing technologies for validation by NASA's new millennium program

The New Millennium Program (NMP) consists of a series of Deep-Space and Earth Orbiting missions that are technology-driven, in contrast to the more traditional science-driven space exploration missions of the past. These flights are designed to validate technologies that will enable a new era of low-cost highly miniaturized and highly capable spacebome applications in the new millennium. In addition to the series of flight projects managed by separate flight teams, the NMP technology initiatives are managed by the following six focused technology programs: Microelectronics Systems, Autonomy, Telecommunications, Instrument Technologies and Architectures, In-Situ Instruments and Micro-electromechanical Systems, and Modular and Multifunctional Systems. Each technology program is managed as an Integrated Product Development Team (IPDT) of government, academic, and industry partners. In this paper, we will describe elements of the technology roadmap proposed by the NMP Microelectronics IPDT. Moreover, we will relate the proposed technology roadmap to existing NASA technology development programs, such as the Advanced Flight Computing (AFC) program, and the Remote Exploration and Experimentation (REE) program, which constitute part of the on-going NASA technology development pipeline. We will also describe the Microelectronics Systems technologies that have been accepted as part of the first New Millennium Deep-Space One spacecraft, which is an asteroid fly-by mission scheduled for launched in July 1998.     

Medical and surgical applications of space biosensor technology

Researchers in space life sciences are rapidly approaching a technology impasse. Many of the critical questions on the impact of spaceflight on living systems simply cannot be answered with the limited available technologies. Research subjects, particularly small animal models like the rat, must be allowed to function relatively untended and unrestrained for long periods to fully reflect the impact of microgravity and spaceflight on their behavior and physiology. These requirements preclude the use of present hard-wired instrumentation techniques and limited data acquisition systems. Implantable sensors and miniaturized biotelemetry are the only means of capturing the fundamental and critical data. This same biosensor and biotelemetry technology has direct application to Earth-based medicine and surgery. Continuous, on-line data acquisition and improved measurement capabilities combined with the ease and flexibility offered by automated, wireless, and portable instruments and data systems, should provide a boon to the health care industry. Playing a key role in this technology revolution is the Sensors 2000! (S2K!) Program at NASA Ames Research Center. S2K!, in collaboration with space life sciences researchers and managers, provides an integrated capability for sensor technology development and applications, including advanced biosensor technology development, spaceflight hardware development, and technology transfer and commercialization. S2K! is presently collaborating on several spaceflight projects with dual-use medical applications. One prime example is a collaboration with the Fetal Treatment Center (FTC) at the University of California at San Francisco. The goal is to develop and apply implantable chemical sensor and biotelemetry technology to continuously monitor fetal patients during extra-uterine surgery, replacement into the womb, through birth and beyond. Once validated for ground use, the method will be transitioned to spaceflight applications to remotely monitor key biochemical parameters in flight animals. Successful application of NASA implantable biosensor and biotelemetry technologies should accelerate the advancement of this and other modern medical procedures while furthering the exploration of life in space.     

Past, present, and future: the U.S. EVA program

This paper provides an overview and summary of U.S. extravehicular activity accomplishments of the last 26 years, Space Shuttle missions having scheduled extravehicular activities to be performed over the next several years, extravehicular activities expected to be necessary to support Space Station Freedom assembly tasks and operations, and potential extravehicular activity roles of the NASA Space Exploration Initiative Program.     

The NASA astrobiology program

The new discipline of astrobiology addresses fundamental questions about life in the universe: "Where did we come from?" "Are we alone in the universe?" "What is our future beyond the Earth?" Developing capabilities in biotechnology, informatics, and space exploration provide new tools to address these old questions. The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has encouraged this new discipline by organizing workshops and technical meetings, establishing a NASA Astrobiology Institute, providing research funds to individual investigators, ensuring that astrobiology goals are incorporated in NASA flight missions, and initiating a program of public outreach and education. Much of the initial effort by NASA and the research community was focused on determining the technical content of astrobiology. This paper discusses the initial answer to the question "What is astrobiology?" as described in the NASA Astrobiology Roadmap.     

Earth benefits from space life sciences

Contributions of space exploration which are widely recognized are those dealing with the impact of space technology on public health and medical services in both urban and remote rural areas. Telecommunications, image enhancement, 3-dimensional image reconstructions, miniaturization, automation, and data analysis, have transformed the delivery of medical care and have brought about a new impetus to the field of biomedicine. Many areas of medical care and biological research have been affected. These include technological breakthroughs in such areas as: (1) diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of cardiovascular diseases, (2) new approaches to the understanding of osteoporosis, (3) early detection of genetic birth defects, (4) emergency medical care, and (5) treatment of chronic metabolic disorders. These are but a few examples where technology originally developed to support space medicine or space research has been applied to solving medical and health care delivery problems on Earth.     

Roadmap to a star

NASA is currently constructing an Interstellar Roadmap that will outline a progressive series of phased technology efforts over several decades that would enable new science beyond the solar system, leading to and culminating in robotics exploration of nearby stars. The Roadmap is structured around a decadal progression of science missions and enabling technologies in which each decadal cycle has an intrinsic value in itself. The Roadmap serves at least 5 functions: 1) it lays the foundation for the development of a broad new strategic thrust of space exploration and development; 2) it outlines a long term progressive program for which each phase has an intrinsic value and can be argued independently of a Star Mission itself; 3) it defines a phased approach that would culminate in a large- scale breakthrough beamed energy capability that would have broad planetary and terrestrial applicability; 4) it describes an endeavor that could provide the technological basis of a U.S. economic engine for the first half of the 21st century; and 5) it provides a focus and a structure around which new government/industry economic relationships may be established. This paper outlines the process for constructing the Roadmap which is due to be completed in Fall 1998. It also poses questions raised by a mission of such scale and suggests some of the strategic value of such a Roadmap.     

Technology readiness assessments: A retrospective

The development of new system capabilities typically depends upon the prior success of advanced technology research and development efforts. These systems developments inevitably face the three major challenges of any project: performance, schedule and budget. Done well, advanced technology programs can substantially reduce the uncertainty in all three of these dimensions of project management. Done poorly, or not at all, and new system developments suffer from cost overruns, schedule delays and the steady erosion of initial performance objectives. It is often critical for senior management to be able to determine which of these two paths is more likely—and to respond accordingly. The challenge for system and technology managers is to be able to make clear, well-documented assessments of technology readiness and risks, and to do so at key points in the life cycle of the program.In the mid 1970s, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) introduced the concept of “technology readiness levels” (TRLs) as a discipline-independent, programmatic figure of merit (FOM) to allow more effective assessment of, and communication regarding the maturity of new technologies. In 1995, the TRL scale was further strengthened by the articulation of the first definitions of each level, along with examples (J. Mankins, Technology readiness levels, A White Paper, NASA, Washington, DC, 1995. [1]). Since then, TRLs have been embraced by the U.S. Congress’ General Accountability Office (GAO), adopted by the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD), and are being considered for use by numerous other organizations. Overall, the TRLs have proved to be highly effective in communicating the status of new technologies among sometimes diverse organizations.This paper will review the concept of “technology readiness assessments”, and provide a retrospective on the history of “TRLs” during the past 30 years. The paper will conclude with observations concerning prospective future directions for the important discipline of technology readiness assessments.     

The development of materials processing in space

The assess the impact of the current crisis in the US space programme on the commercial aspects of space technology development, consultant Allan Spitzer has compiled a report based on interviews with senior representatives of government, industry and academe. The report concentrates on policies specifically related to materials processing in space (MPS) and covers areas such as access to space, the role of NASA, subsidies and pricing.     

QUASAT program: The ESA reflector

QUASAT is a joint ESA/NASA cooperative mission for a free-flying VLBI antenna to be used with the U.S. and European ground arrays. The spaceborn reflector shall have a diameter of 15 m or more and shall operate at three frequencies: 1.6, 5 and 22 GHz. These requirements are very stringent and very difficult to satisfy. The reflector proposed by the European Space Agency as part of the Quasat assessment study shall be presented. Such reflector shall use the Inflatable Space Rigidized technology under development within ESA. Results of the performances envisaged from such design shall be discussed together with the manufacturing and testing problems envisaged for such reflector. Results derived by different reflector design but using the same Inflatable Space Rigidized technology shall also be presented.     

Phoenix--the first Mars Scout mission

NASA has initiated the first of a new series of missions to augment the current Mars Program. In addition to the systematic series of planned, directed missions currently comprising the Mars Program plan, NASA has started a series of Mars Scout missions that are low cost, price fixed, Principal [correction of Principle] Investigator-led projects. These missions are intended to provide an avenue for rapid response to discoveries made as a result of the primary Mars missions, as well as allow more risky technologies and approaches to be applied in the investigation of Mars. The first in this new series is the Phoenix mission which was selected as part of a highly competitive process. Phoenix will use the Mars 2001 Lander that was discontinued in 2000 and apply a new set of science objectives and mission objectives and will validate this soft lander architecture for future applications. This paper will provide an overview of both the Program and the Project.     

空间短时飞行试验工具的应用与展望

空间短时飞行试验是指以探空火箭、气球、亚轨道重复发射工具等为主要实现手段,将待试验对象发射到一定高度,进行科学实验和技术验证的研究方法。对空间短时飞行试验工具的发展历史和应用现状进行综述,对探空火箭、气球、亚轨道重复发射工具在科学观测、新技术试验中发挥的作用进行总结和概括,以NASA飞行机会计划FOP为例,对其在有效载荷技术成熟度评估中的应用情况进行了重点阐述,结合我国空间科学探测和空间技术试验的迫切需求,对空间短时飞行试验工具在我国的应用前景进行了展望和预测。     

The relevance of economic data in the decision-making process for orbital launch vehicle programs, a U.S. perspective

Over the past fifteen years, major U.S. initiatives for the development of new launch vehicles have been remarkably unsuccessful. The list is long: NLI, SLI, and X-33, not to mention several cancelled programs aimed at high speed airplanes (NASP, HSCT) which would share some similar technological problems.The economic aspects of these programs are equally as important to their success as are the technical aspects. In fact, by largely ignoring economic realities in the decisions to undertake these programs and in subsequent management decisions, space agencies (and their commercial partners) have inadvertently contributed to the eventual demise of these efforts.The transportation revolution that was envisaged by the promises of these programs has never occurred. Access to space is still very expensive; reliability of launch vehicles has remained constant over the years; and market demand has been relatively low, volatile and slow to develop. The changing international context of the industry (launching overcapacity, etc.) has also worked against the investment in new vehicles in the U.S. Today, unless there are unforeseen technical breakthroughs, orbital space access is likely to continue as it has been with high costs and market stagnation.Space exploration will require significant launching capabilities. The details of the future needs are not yet well defined. But, the question of the launch costs, the overall demand for vehicles, and the size and type of role that NASA will play in the overall launch market is likely to influence the industry. This paper will emphasize the lessons learned from the economic and management perspective from past launch programs, analyze the issues behind the demand for launches, and project the challenges that NASA will face as only one new customer in a very complex market situation. It will be important for NASA to make launch vehicle decisions based as much on economic considerations as it does on solving new technical challenges.     

The relevance of economic data in the decision-making process for orbital launch vehicle programs,a U.S. perspective

Over the past fifteen years, major U.S. initiatives for the development of new launch vehicles have been remarkably unsuccessful. The list is long: NLI, SLI, and X-33, not to mention several cancelled programs aimed at high speed airplanes (NASP, HSCT) which would share some similar technological problems.The economic aspects of these programs are equally as important to their success as are the technical aspects. In fact, by largely ignoring economic realities in the decisions to undertake these programs and in subsequent management decisions, space agencies (and their commercial partners) have inadvertently contributed to the eventual demise of these efforts.The transportation revolution that was envisaged by the promises of these programs has never occurred. Access to space is still very expensive; reliability of launch vehicles has remained constant over the years; and market demand has been relatively low, volatile and slow to develop. The changing international context of the industry (launching overcapacity, etc.) has also worked against the investment in new vehicles in the U.S. Today, unless there are unforeseen technical breakthroughs, orbital space access is likely to continue as it has been with high costs and market stagnation.Space exploration will require significant launching capabilities. The details of the future needs are not yet well defined. But, the question of the launch costs, the overall demand for vehicles, and the size and type of role that NASA will play in the overall launch market is likely to influence the industry. This paper will emphasize the lessons learned from the economic and management perspective from past launch programs, analyze the issues behind the demand for launches, and project the challenges that NASA will face as only one new customer in a very complex market situation. It will be important for NASA to make launch vehicle decisions based as much on economic considerations as it does on solving new technical challenges.     

超导核磁共振技术在航天员生命保障中的应用前景探究

长期空间飞行会对航天员的身心健康造成一定的不利影响,开展航天员生命保障的研究是非常必要的。核磁共振技术是疾病检查诊断的重要手段,同样在航天员生命保障医疗中将发挥重要的作用。文章结合国内外相关研究进展以及航天员选拔、训练和航天员医监医保的相关知识,探究了超导核磁共振技术在航天员生命保障中的应用前景。     

Following the water,the new program for Mars exploration

In the wake of the loss of Mars Climate Orbiter and Mars Polar Lander in late 1999, NASA embarked on a major review of the failures and subsequently restructured all aspects of what was then called the Mars Surveyor Program--now renamed the Mars Exploration Program. This paper presents the process and results of this reexamination and defines a new approach which we have called "Program System Engineering". Emphasis is given to the scientific, technological, and programmatic strategies that were used to shape the new Program. A scientific approach known as "follow the water" is described, as is an exploration strategy we have called "seek--in situ--sample". An overview of the mission queue from continuing Mars Global Surveyor through a possible Mars Sample Return Mission launch in 2011 is provided. In addition, key proposed international collaborations, especially those between NASA, CNES and ASI are outlined, as is an approach for a robust telecommunications infrastructure.     

Microgravity research results and experiences from the NASA/MIR space station program

The Microgravity Research Program (MRP) participated aggressively in Phase 1 of the International Space Station Program using the Russian Mir Space Station. The Mir Station offered an otherwise unavailable opportunity to explore the advantages and challenges of long duration microgravity space research. Payloads with both National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA) and commercial backing were included as well as cooperative research with the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). From this experience, much was learned about long-duration on-orbit science utilization and developing new working relationships with our Russian partner to promote efficient planning, operations, and integration to solve complexities associated with a multiple partner program.

This paper focuses on the microgravity research conducted onboard the Mir space station. It includes the Program preparation and planning necessary to support this type of cross increment research experience; the payloads which were flown; and summaries of significant microgravity science findings.     

Aerospace technology transfer to breast cancer imaging

In the United States in 1996, an estimated 44,560 women died of breast cancer, and 184,300 new cases were diagnosed. Advances in space technology are now making significant improvements in the imaging technologies used in managing this important foe. The first of these spinoffs, a digital spot mammography system used to perform stereotactic fine-needle breast biopsy, uses a backside-thinned CCD developed originally for the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrometer. This paper describes several successful biomedical applications which have resulted from collaborative technology transfer programs between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the National Cancer Institute (NCI), and the U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services Office on Women's Health (OWH). These programs have accelerated the introduction of direct digital mammography by two years. In follow-on work, RTI is now assisting the HHS Office on Women's Health to identify additional opportunities for transfer of aerospace, defense, and intelligence technologies to image-guided detection, diagnosis, and treatment of breast cancer. The technology identification and evaluation effort culminated in a May 1997 workshop, and the formative technology development partnerships are discussed.     

Two modest proposals for propelling NASA forward

The external and internal environments of NASA have been shifting, necessitating new approaches to problem solving and innovation. Based on a strategic alignment analysis, and an understanding of NASA's internal and external contexts, we have two modest proposals: First, give NASA flexibility to manage its human resources and infrastructure based on market-based, competitive, performance-oriented principles. Second, it is time for NASA to become a real network organization. One that is properly integrated both internally (across NASA centers) as well as externally with whatever organizations have superior space-related knowledge and technology, wherever they are.     

Redefining safety in commercial space: Understanding debates over the safety of private human spaceflight initiatives in the United States

In 2009 President Obama proposed a budget for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) that canceled the Constellation program and included the development of commercial crew transportation systems into low Earth orbit. This significant move to shift human spaceflight into the private sector sparked political debate, but much of the discourse has focused on impacts to “safety.” Although no one disputes the importance of keeping astronauts safe, strategies for defining safety reveal contrasting visions for the space program and opposing values regarding the privatization of U.S. space exploration. In other words, the debate over commercial control has largely become encoded in arguments over safety. Specifically, proponents of using commercial options for transporting astronauts to the International Space Station (ISS) argue that commercial vehicles would be safe for astronauts, while proponents of NASA control argue that commercial vehicles would be unsafe, or at least not as safe as NASA vehicles. The cost of the spaceflight program, the technical requirements for designing a vehicle, the track record of the launch vehicle, and the experience of the launch provider are all incorporated into what defines safety in human spaceflight. This paper analyzes these contested criteria through conceptual lenses provided by fields of science and technology policy (STP) and science, technology, and society (STS). We ultimately contend that these differences in definition result not merely from ambiguous understandings of safety, but from intentional and strategic choices guided by normative positions on the commercialization of human spaceflight. The debate over safety is better considered a proxy debate for the partisan preferences embedded within the dispute over public or private spaceflight.