Analytical definition and proposed concept for the manned infrastructure of a lunar outpost

A recent study made by ESA has reviewed the scientific investigations to be only, or best, performed on the Moon (Return to the Moon, ESA SP-1150, June 1992), and has identified the need for a manned lunar outpost to provide support to field geologists in sampling and in-situ observations of the lunar surface, and to allow the refurbishments of surface stations and rovers. Planning and development for a manned outpost on the Moon requires an in-depth understanding and analysis of the functions this outpost is expected to perform. We therefore analyzed the impact of the proposed scientific investigations on the design of a manned lunar outpost. The specific questions raised in our study were: What are the medical, physiological and psychological risks for a crew to stay and to work on the Moon? What transit and lunar surface infrastructures (habitats and vehicles) are needed to minimize those risks?     

The International Space Station: a pathway to the future

Nearly six years after the launch of the first International Space Station element, and four years after its initial occupation, the United States and our 6 international partners have made great strides in operating this impressive Earth orbiting research facility. This past year we have done so in the face of the adversity of operating without the benefit of the Space Shuttle. In his January 14, 2004, speech announcing a new vision for America's space program, President Bush affirmed the United States' commitment to completing construction of the International Space Station by 2010. The President also stated that we would focus our future research aboard the Station on the long-term effects of space travel on human biology. This research will help enable human crews to venture through the vast voids of space for months at a time. In addition, ISS affords a unique opportunity to serve as an engineering test bed for hardware and operations critical to the exploration tasks. NASA looks forward to working with our partners on International Space Station research that will help open up new pathways for future exploration and discovery beyond low Earth orbit. This paper provides an overview of the International Space Station Program focusing on a review of the events of the past year, as well as plans for next year and the future.     

Return to the Moon: A sustainable strategy

On 14 January 2004 President George Bush announced his vision for space exploration, to include a human return to the Moon. He argued that, with a moderate increase in NASA's annual expenditure, such a return was possible. This paper is an exploration of how the President's space initiative can be realised on an international co-operative basis along similar lines to those already existing with the international space station (ISS). By abandoning the concept of a lunar landing as the major goal of a lunar programme, the initiative is made feasible. The three-stage plan here presented meshes with the currently evolving plans for the US space initiative to provide a realistic, affordable and sustainable strategy for manned lunar exploration. It represents a significant opportunity for the USA to unite and lead the world on this grand, civilisation defining adventure.     

Promoting the coalition for a lunar power system

Powering human civilization in the 21st century with clean energy from the Moon became the focus of a unique conference conducted at the Sea Lodge in LaJolla, California, 9–11 July 1990. Organized by Netrologic Inc of San Diego, the lunar-based Solar Power Planning Workshop attracted an elite group of 25 distinguished scientists, engineers and other professionals to formulate an international Coalition for a Lunar Power System. The participants ranged from Buzz Aldrin of Starcraft Enterprises and Bryan Erb of the Canadian Space Agency, to Osamu Inoue of Shimizu Corporation and Gary McAllister of Bechtel Corporation.     

A methodology to determine the sociopolitical forces influencing lunar development policies

The rate of progress in any particular program is primarily dependent on the annual resources committed for the specific program. Soon after the turn of the century, the question of returning to the Moon will probably be raised again among political decision makers. At that time the positive and negative arguments will have to be weighed again. A simple method to analyse the relevant force-field was developed comprising the following steps: (1) Definition of positive and negative forces; (2) cross-impact analysis between the individual forces producing relative weights; (3) probability analysis of the current relevance of the individual forces; (4) estimating resulting negative and positive partial force-fields as functions for selected years between 1960 and 2030; and (5) determination of the strength of the resulting force influencing a decision. An example is presented.     

Space traffic control: a view of the future

This paper provides an overview of a system for providing reliable, ongoing, timely situational awareness services to satellite operators. Such services would include close approach warnings, warnings of potential radio frequency interference, and other offerings designed to help make operators aware of possible threats to the safe operation of their spacecraft and measures they can take to lessen these threats. The paper discusses current trends, proposes operational requirements, and speculates on the type of organization that may emerge to provide space traffic control services. It highlights how the detailed information required for such services may affect the evolution of the use of space.     

A human galaxy: a prehistory of the future

In the very long term, how could humans colonise the Galaxy? Colonisation cannot be centrally controlled; deeper drives must be tapped. It may take centuries to colonise the nearest stars: it may be a 'programme' like the Industrial Revolution, fuelled by entrepreneurship. To build a respectable interstellar empire may take millennia. Religions are similar multigenerational projects. Perhaps colonists will be motivated by appropriate creeds. To win the Galaxy, starship technology must persist for tens or hundreds of millennia. Homo erectus made the same hand-axe for a million years. The driver was biological, not conscious. Perhaps to our descendants starships will be like peacock tails.     

Achieving GPS–Galileo interoperability: the challenges ahead

The enormous benefits of a worldwide accurate location system can only be achieved if GPS and Galileo can be made truly interoperable. The technical issues involved are relatively easy to deal with but the political and legal problems require far greater attention, with military issues and enactment of legislation the chief difficulties. These are discussed using examples, notably from road traffic law. Given that the US DoD is unlikely to cede control of GPS to the civil sector and design a new, separate system, the best solution might be to set aside part of GPS for purely civil purposes.     

Does the lunar surface still offer value as a site for astronomical observatories?

Current thinking about the Moon as a destination has revitalized interest in lunar astronomical observatories. Once seen by a large scientific community as a highly enabling site, the dramatic improvement in capabilities for free-space observatories prompts reevaluation of this interest. Whereas the lunar surface offers huge performance advantages for astronomy over terrestrial sites, free-space locales such as Earth orbit or Lagrange points offer performance that is superior to what could be achieved on the Moon. While astronomy from the Moon may be cost-effective once infrastructure is there, it is in many respects no longer clearly enabling compared with free space.     

A socio-economic evaluation of the lunar environment and resources: II. Energy for the selenosphere

This first of several study papers, based on a fundamental paper presented in 1972, provides an independent conceptual analysis and evaluation of the lunar environment as industrial base and habitat. A selenosphere system strategy is outlined. The underlying concept is that of one or several lunar industrial zones for resource extraction and on-surface processing, integrated with a circumlunar zero-g processing capability, serving markets in geolunar space. A classification of lunar elements by utilization category is presented. Lunar oxygen is a prime candidate for being an initial economic “drawing card”, because of its value for fast transportation in geolunar space, requiring significantly fewer ships for equal transfer capability per unit time than electric transports which, however, have value, especially between geosynchronous and lunar orbit. The reduced development difficulties of controlled fusion outside the atmosphere and its advantages for extracting oxygen and other elements in quantity are summarized. Examples of lunar cycle management as fundamental exoindustrial requirement for economic resource enhancement are presented. The principal initial socio-economic value of lunar industry lies in the use of lunar resources for exoindustrial products and operations designed to accelerate, intensify and diversify Earth-related benefits. In the longer run, lunar settlements are a highly suitable proving ground for studying and testing the complex matrix of technological, biological, cultural, social and psychological aspects that must be understood and manageable before large settlements beyond Earth can have a realistic basis for viability. The lunar environment is more suitable for experimentation and comparatively more “forgiving” in case of failures than is orbital space.     

The Moon Treaty: prospects for the future

1995 marks the 15th anniversary of the United States' debate over ratification of the 1979 Moon Treaty.¹ The 1994–1995 season also marks the 10th anniversary of the Moon Treaty's entry into force among the small number of countries that ratified it.² These two anniversaries are significant both in themselves and because they occur at a time of reexamination regarding the Moon Treaty. This article briefly reviews the history of the agreement, and its prospects over the next few years. It concludes with some suggestions for revisiting the troublesome question of property rights in celestial bodies.     

Analysis of volatile lunar compounds: The study of gas retention time on Carbosieve SIII adsorbent with respect to temperature

This work presents the study of the characteristic retention times on Carbosieve SIII adsorbent for several permanent gases CO₂, CO, CH₄, N₂ with respect to the temperature of cooling of adsorption accumulators. To perform this work, a laboratory model of a gas chromatograph that included all key components of a standard instrument has been designed.     

Planning the unplannable: Scenarios on the future of space

This article explores the use of scenario analysis as a methodology to rigorously analyze potential space futures, particularly with respect to space security challenges, in the context of rapid and uncertain change across several dimensions of human space activities. The successful use of scenario analysis in other (e.g. corporate and military) sectors is described and results of an initial scenario analysis workshop are presented. Scenario analysis is recommended as a promising approach to evaluating the long-term consequences of various policy choices in the context of uncertainty, and as a process well-suited to fostering communication and building consensual knowledge among diverse stakeholders.     

Ra: future policy directions and a strategic framework for solar research and applications

The authors and 50 other students from around the world participated in the International Space University's (ISU) 1996 Summer Session Solar Probe Design Project. The main product of this was a 349-page text on the future of solar exploration and applications entitled Ra: The Sun for Science and Humanity. This article condenses and highlights the policy directions, organizational initiatives and strategic framework presented in that work. In particular, these include the proposed creation of a working group on international solar exploration and applications to act as a forum for mission planning, and a model for facilitating interagency/international exchanges regarding solar missions.     

A socio-economic evaluation of the lunar environment and resources—III: Selenospheric economics and cislunar/terrestrial market analysis

Geosocio-economically useful lunar development requires adoption of a development strategy designed to balance investments and returns as attractively as possible. This paper deals with a systematic approach to developing early and profitable returns through an appropriate investment strategy and through cislunar and terrestrial market research. In addition, long-term aspects are outlined, including the production of helium-3 for terrestrial fusion power plants and of water from fusion products and lunar oxygen.     

Test results of the air turbo ramjet for a future space plane

The Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS) has been engaged in the development study on the Air Turbo Ramjet (ATR) engine since 1986 in cooperation with the Ishikawajima Harima Heavy Industries Co. Ltd (IHI). The ATR is one of the most preferable candidates for the propulsion system of a future space plane. Our ATR engine is a combined cycle air breathing propulsion system which consists of the turbojet and the fan boosted ramjet using the liquid hydrogen as a fuel. This engine system was named “ATREX” after employing the expander cycle. The ATREX is energized by thermal energy extracted regeneratively in both the pre-cooler installed in the air intake and the heat exchanger in combustion chamber. The ATREX works in the flight condition from sea level static up to Mach 6 at 35 km altitude. The ATREX employs the tip turbine configuration for compactness of turbo machinery. We are assessing the feasibility of the ATREX system by the sea level static tests using the 1/4-scale model (ATREX-500) with a fan inlet diameter of 300 mm and overall length of 2120 mm. In 1990, the ATREX-500 engine was tested in a sea level static condition to verify the performance characteristics of the turbo machinery and the combustor. In September of 1991, the heat exchanger was installed in the combustion chamber and tested independently from the turbo system. In November of 1991, the heat exchanger was coupled with the turbo system and tested to verify the overall system of the ATREX. In this paper are presented the test results of the ATREX-500 engine tested in the sea level static condition.     

Punching below its weight: Still the future of space in Australia?

Although a rich and technologically advanced country, Australia has never had a proper national space programme. And while more and more countries—including those in the developing world—are investing in space, the Australian government seems to be moving in the opposite direction. The country's space community held a forum in November 2004 to look at ways of advancing their agenda and it is hoped, but sadly not certain, that the goals agreed may persuade the government of its folly.     

Effects of HZE particle on the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system in a future Mars mission

Because of long duration travel outside the Earth's magnetic field, the effect of iron-rich high charge and energy (HZE) particles in Galactic Cosmic Rays on human body is the major concern in radiation protection. Recently attention has been directed to effects on the central nervous system in addition to mutagenic effects. In particular, a reduction in striatal dopamine content on nigrostriatal dopaminergic system has been reported by investigators using accelerated iron ions in ground-based mammalian studies. In addition, studies of the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease demonstrated that excess iron cause a reduction in the dopamine content in the substantia nigra. This suggests an intriguing possibility to explain the selective detrimental effects of HZE particles on the dopaminergic system. Should these particles have biochemical effects, possible options for countermeasures are: (1) nutritional prevention, (2) medication, and (3) surgical placement of a stimulator electrode at a specific anatomic site in the basal ganglia.     

美战术小卫星指挥权下放至战区后对未来作战样式的影响

战术小卫星是为了战术应用而建立的,目的是探求一种能快速提供聚焦于战役战术任务的空间能力。将战术小卫星的指挥权下放至战区后,可使战场指挥官实时掌握战场信息,并将天基力量协同陆基、海基,空基力量,实现联合作战。简要介绍美军战术小卫星的在轨现状及发展构想,重点分析了战术小卫星指挥权下放至战区后对未来作战样式的影响。